PSY1622 Developmental Psychology PDF

**[PSY1622 Developmental Psychology ]** Developmental Psychology seeks to identify variables/factors/reasons that influence development and to explain how they work together to shape an individual's life 3 broad goals in the study of child development 1. To understand changes that appear to be u...

**[PSY1622 Developmental Psychology ]** Developmental Psychology seeks to identify variables/factors/reasons that influence development and to explain how they work together to shape an individual's life 3 broad goals in the study of child development 1. To understand changes that appear to be universal (those that occur regardless of culture or personal experience) 2. To explain individual differences (ex. why infants react in particular ways to their mother leaving the room, while other play happily) 3. To understand how children's behaviour is influences by the environmental context or situation (contexts include immediate environment, as well as wider social and cultural influences) Development is defined as orderly and relatively enduring changes over time in physical and neurological structures, thought processes and behaviour **[Basic Issues in the Study of Development ]** The most important thing in a person is attachment Founders of Child Psychology -- the priests, parents/family, elderly women 3 main schools of the time: - Psychoanalytic -- Freud, Jung - Behaviourist -- Watson, Pavlov, Skinner - Humanistic -- Rogers, Maslow John Watson (Behaviourist): advocated very rigid feeding schedules for infants and an orderly approach to child rearing (raising), going against American parenting tradition Dr. Benjamin Spock: radically different views decreased Watson's popularity. Influenced by Freud, he urged parents not to engage in conflicts over issues such as weaning and toilet training, and to display affection to their children - Today Watson's views are seen as emotionally cold and excessively rigid, while Spock's recommendations as overly indulgent Children need 3 main things: - Structure (ex. knowing there is maths, then english, then break) - Routine (ex. school creates a routine) - Predictability (ex. we are going on a picnic) *What factors do you believe influence this child's life?* *A Somalian refugee was 13, but was thought to be 9. He was on a boat with his parents from Somalia to Libya, when his mother died and was thrown off the boat (around 4/5 years). At therapy, he said that his father got another woman pregnant on the boat. When he was about 7, his father left Malta, so he was parentless and living with this woman who loved him but was not family (his father's companion). She went to Germany after she applied for residency with her 2 kids but he stayed here alone. Eventually after being in a mental hospital and being in therapy for over 2 years, he applied for refugee citizenship in Germany and went to live with his second mother, who he knew wanted him to live with her* *Factors which led to the child's breakdown:* - *The main attachment figure disappeared from his life (mother): maternal death* - *Paternal loss* - *Leaving his home country* - *Having the experience at such a young age which he couldn't remember ex. couldn't remember his mother's voice* *Factors which helped him heal:* - *Having a secondary maternal figure* - *His siblings* - *Hope and resilience* - *Emotional self-regulation* - *Intellectual capacity -- the more intellectual a child is, the more he is able to solve problems -- this is the way he managed to get to Germany* - *Community: social support -- people went out of their way to help him* Encapsulated Delusion: a person who functions normally because they want to protect themselves, they separate their delusions from their whole being to stop them from pervading everyday behaviour and cognitive states Traumatic experiences lead to delusion, espeically to young children. Stability is important in raising children -- continuity Resilience and Hope: come from the ability to self-regulate and intellectual capacity. When a child learns that their reaction is in their control, they gain a lot of strength 4-6 years -- Animism: percieving objects or abstract ideas as possessing living characteristics 14-16 years -- Cognitive Distortion: belief that one is invincible The hind brain controls basic physiological survival processes/actions, it is fully developed at birth Holophrase: a word that could mean a lot of things, ex. if a baby says 'sock', it could mean that he doesn't want to wear it, he wants to take it off... Telegraphic: a few words with more significant meaning. For ex. 'papa sock' Neologisms: new words the child comes up with to describe other things ex. making up 'I open banana' instead of 'I peeled the banana' Development of Speech: cooing babbling holophrases telegraphic speech neologisms *Case Study* - *8 year old intelligent girl, had no school problems. After 8 years, she had a phobia of school and didn't want to go to school* *Factors to think about when formulating ideas* - *School environment* - *Peer pressure* - *External factors; perennial perspective* - *Genetics* *One should always first consider Nature vs Nurture* **[Perspectives on Development ]** [Nature vs Nurture] Nature: hereditary information we receive from the parents, ex. physical appearance Nuture: complex forces of the physical and social world that influence our biological makeip and psychological experiences before and after birth, ex. language development Idealists and Rationalists, mainly Plato and Descartes, believed that at least some knowledge is inborn. On the other hand, a group of British philosophers called Empiricists, including John Locke, insisted that at birth the mind is a 'tabula rasa.' Hence, knowledge is created by experience, the result of external, environmental factors acting on a child, whose only relevant internal characteristic is the capacity to respond How Nurture affects Nature before birth (baby in uterus) - Crack babies: babies born with drugs in their system due to mother ingesting drugs during pregnancy (gestation) - Nutrition: if a baby is larger than 4.5 kilos they are more susceptible to gestational diabetes = larger tendency for developmental delay and difficulty learning If the mother does not eat enough, there is not enough protein to build the cells - Alcohol: higher incidence of asthma - Thalidomide (antiemitic drug to prevent nausea during pregnancy) which caused babies to be born with shorter limbs - Radiation: stunted growth, deformities, abnormal brain function, cancer - If the mother smokes, the baby will have a higher incidence of asthma How Nurture affects Nature after birth - Abuse: failure to thrive -- lack of love - Still face syndrome: when a non-responsive expressionless mother interacts with a child, makinf them wary and rapidly sober - In uterus, babies are already primed towards the language that they are going to learn - Piaget: the child is an active participant 3 types of Cerebral Palsy: prenatal, perinatal, postnatal A syndrome is a collection of symptoms [Sequences and Stages ] - Continuity-Discontinuity: is development continuous or discontinuous? - Continuous Development implies it is a cumulative process of gradually adding more skills to already existing ones -- a quantitative change - Discontinuous Development: new and different ways of responding to the world emerge at particular times, in pre-determined stages -- a qualitative change [Internal and External Influences on Development (Modern Developmental Theory)] Maturation (nature): Arnold Gessell coined the term to describe genetically programmed sequential patterns of change. Any maturational pattern is universal, sequential and relatively impervious to environmental influences. A maturationally determined behaviour happens regardless of training or practice The timing of experience: specific experiences interact with maturational patterns in complex manners. Hence, both timing and experience may impact on development, leading to the concepts of critical and sensitive periods in development. A behavioural pattern will develop or not, depending on when it happens Critical Period: any time period during development when an organism is especially responsive to and learns from a specific type of stimulation. The same stimulation at other points has little or no effect (ex. the 15 hour period wherein ducks may develop a following response to any moving or quacking object) Sensitive Period: any time period during which a particular experience can best incorporated in the maturational process (ex. language development in infancy) Inborn Biases and Constraints: development is a result of experience filtered through initial biases, but those biases constrain the number of developmental pathways that are possible (ex. limitations imposed by flight). Elizabeth Spelke claimed that babies are born with certain "pre-existing biases" or "constraints" on their understanding of the behaviour of objects Behaviour Genetics: the study of genetic contributions to individual behaviour, implying that nature contributes to variations from one individual to another. Research focuses primarily on identical and fraternal twins, and adopted children. Heredity affects a vast range of physical aspects, pathology and temperamental issues Gene-Environment Interaction -- 3 parts: - A child's genetic heritage may affect his environment. Children inherit their genes from their parents, who also usually create the environment they live in - Each child's unique pattern of behaviour affects the way adults and other children respond - Children's interpretations of their experiences are affected by inherited tendencies, such as intelligence, temperament and pathology A child's genetic baggage comes from the parents, who create the environment at home. The child then leaves home, and the way they interact with others, will make the others interact with them. The child will finally go back home and recreate their experience with their parents, and the parents will experience it in their own way Internal Models of Experience: although often experiences are associated with external forces, the individual's view of their own experience (internal aspect) is also significant. This model is a set of core ideas about the self and relationships with others. This self-model is based on experience but it also shapes the future Core Value: something central to the sense of self, which develops in the first 3 years of life. It directs us and makes us think of ourselves in relation to others Aslin's Model of Environmental Influences 1. Maturation: represents a purely maturational pattern with no environmental effect (ex. eye colour) 2. Maintenance: describes a pattern in which some environmental input is necessary to sustain a skill that has already been developed maturationally (ex. swimming at birth) 3. Facilitation: states that a skill or behaviour develops earlier that it normally would because of experience (ex. language). The skill still develops eventually in other individuals and there are no permanent gains 4. Attunement: describes how a particular experience leads to a permanent gain or an enduringly high level of performance 5. Induction: describes a pure environmental effect. In the absence of experience, a particular behaviour does not develop at all [The Ecological Perspective] This approach focuses on external forces which may impact on a child Urie Bronfenbrenner: proposed that a child grows up in a complex social environment (ecology), with a number of significant people. His model focuses on how the components of this complex system interact to affect the development of the individual child. Culture (individualisitc or collectivist) is an integral part of this model - Microsystem: social agents (ex. mother and child relationship) - Mesosystem: how the carer and an outsider's relationship impacts the child - Exosystem: places/contexts which the child does not face directly, but will impact him - Macrosystem: global - Chronosystem : the impact of time [Vulnerability and Resilience] Vulnerability: an element of difference, depending on how the person perceives it Resilience: having the capacity to withstand hardship. We are born with a tendency towards resilience. The capacity for resilience lies in one's personality. Intelligent children are more resilient This approach considers the complexity of the interaction between individual characteristics and the environment Children may be resilient to outside forces, and similar environments are linked to different outcomes Children are born with certain protective factors and vulnerabilties, which then interact with the environment. Hence the same environment may produce different outcomes, depending on what the child brings into the interaction **[Main Theories of Development ]** 1. Psychoanalytic Theories 2. Cognitive Developmental/ Information-Processing Theories 3. Learning Theories (ex. classical/operant conditioning, social cognitive theory) [Psychoanalytic Theories] Deterministic Theory: if this happens, then that will happen Draconian Theory: dictatorial, something certain Developed from Freudian School: was a doctor, then became fascinated by the mind. He was the first ever person to come up with theories like the unconscious. Was initially part of a larger group, when his emphasis became solely psychosexual Freudian Theories: - Topographical Model ID: pleasure principle, from birth, lifelong, immediate gratification Ego: sense of self Superego: the mediator between the Ego and the ID, control factor - Theory of Levels of Consciousness Conscious: what we are aware of Preconscious: easily accessible, but not at the top of the mind Unconscious: not readily accessible Ways to access the unconscious: dreams, free association, hypnosis, Freudian slip Dreams can be understood in 2 parts -- manifest content (what you actually dream-shown), latent content (what the dream wants to portray/meaning-hidden) Defence Mechanisms: there to protect the self, they are bad when they are overused or one is used in exclusion to the others - Denial: refusing to acknowledge something - Repression: pushing something completely out of mind so as not to think about it until eventually, it is forgotten - Reaction Formation: convincing yourself the opposite of what actually is true - Projection: sttributing an unwanted trait or thought to someone else - Rationalisation: coming up with a logicalexplanation for a shameful thought/ action - Displacement -Redirecting an unwanted impulse toward something more acceptable - Regression- Reverting to an earlier stage of life development to self-soothe and push your adult responsibilities away prevents people from facing problems - Sublimation: transmitting socially unacceptable impulses into acceptable behaviour (conscious) Conversion Hysteria: a physical symptom because of something psychological **[Research Methods in Child Development ]** Developmental Psychology uses research to achieve 4 goals - To describe development -- state what happens - To explain development -- why an event occurs - To predict development -- envisage an event - To influence development -- intervention Studying Age-Related Changes - Cross-Sectional Designs -- different age groups at the same time - Longitudinal Designs -- same participants over a period of time - Sequential Designs -- combining Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs Identifying Relationships between Variables - Case Studies and Naturalistic Observation - Correlations -- not causal, but associative - Experiments Cross-Cultural Research - Ethnography -- the systematic study of people and cultures - Cross-cultural comparison studies Comparisons of different cultures allows for identification of universality and improvement of people's loves. In all aspects of research, ethical guidelines, which protect humans and animals, are employed **[Pre-Natal Development and the New Born]** Process of Conception - The ovum is released froom one of the ovaries roughly midway between periods - If not fertilised, the ovum travels from the ovary down the fallopian tube toward the uterus, where it is expelled as menstrual flow - If sperm fertilises the ovum this results in a zygote - The zygote then continues on its journey down the fallopian tube and eventually implants itself in the wall of the uterus The Basic Genetics of Conception - The nucleus of each cell contains 46 chromosomes -- 23 pairs. Most genetic material is found here - Cells divide through mitosis -- duplication of cells - In 22 of the chromosome pairs, the members carry identical genetic information. The 23^rd^ chromosome is the sex chromosome that determines the child's sex and comes in two varieties, namely the X and the Y chromosome. A healthy female has two X chromosomes, while a healthy male has one X and one Y chromosome Male -- XY chromosome pair 23 Female -- XX chromosome pair 23 - X from female - Y/X from male - Sperm and ovum (gametes -- germ cells) are the only cells that do not contain 46 chromosomes, as they contain 23, to combine making 46 (zygote) - Gametes divde through meiosis - Chromosomes are composed of DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid). The string of DNA can be divided further into genes, each of which control/influence a particular feature of an organism or a portion of some developmental pattern - Genetic mapping: process by which the locus (place) of every human gene on the chromosomes is identified - Genes are segments of DNA, which together make up chromosomes Problems in Conception - Liquification: sperm solidifies before the 72 hours it is meant to remain alive - Low sperm count - Motility: sperm that doesn't travel up towards the fallopian tubes to fertilise the ovum, but remains wandering at the bottom When 23 chromosomes meet, they provide a mix of of 'instructions': - Homozygous Pattern : the 2 genes in the pair at any given genetic locus carry the same instructions (ex. blood type, hair) - Heterozygous Pattern: the two genes in the pair at any given genetic locus carry the same instructions Patterns of Genetic Inheritacn - Genotype: the specific set of instructions contained in the genes - Phenotype: the set of actual observed characteristics, a product of the genotype, environmental influences from the time of conception onwards, and the interaction between the two Gregor Mendel -- principles of inheritance - Dominant Gene: a single dominant gene more weight than a recessive gene (ex. dimple) - Recessive Genes: hidden - Polygenic and Multifactorial Transmission - Polygenic patterns of inheritance: controlled by many genes - Multifactorial Transmission: transmission is affected both by genes and the environment - Genomic Imprinting and Mitochondrial Transmission - Genomic Imprinting: some genes are biochemically marked at the time the ova and sperm develop in the bodies of potential mothers and fathers (ex. Angelman Syndrome) - Mitochondrial Inheritance: implies that children inherit genes located outside the nucleus of the zygote, found only in the ovum before it is fertilised. Hence, this type of transmission is mainly maternal. The mother herself may be unaffected - Twins and Siblings - fraternal twins develop when two ova have been produced and both have been fertilised, each by a separate sperm. They are no more alike genetically than any other pair of siblings - Identical twins are a result of a single fertilised ovum, which initially divides in the normal way, but then separates into two parts, with each part developing into a separate individual. [Development f rom Conception to Birth ] Stages of Prenatal Development 1. The Germinal Stage Starts at conception and ends when the zygote is implanted into the walls of the uterus The zygote spends roughly 1 week floating down towards the uterus, before implantation Cell division begins 24-36 hours after conception Implantation is complete around 10 days to 2 weeks after conception 2. Embryonic Stage (implantation to 8 weeks) Placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic fluid develop A heartbeat can be detected 4-5 weeks after conception Beginning of lungs and limbs Rudimentary fingers, toes, eyes, eyelids, nose, mouth, external ears, basic parts of the nervous system are present 3. Foetal Stage (8 to 40 weeks) All organ systems are refined at this stage The nervous system mostly develops -- brain and spinal cord develop from the neural tube The major foetal growth occurs towards the end of this period Shunt -- inserted in the baby's brain to drain excess CSF (if this is not done, the baby dies) Sex Differences in Prenatal Development - The male embryo secretes testosterone as from the 2^nd^ month of conception. No equivalent secretion is seen in female foetuses. Research indicated that prenatal hormones may play a large role in brain development and functioning, even in later years - Girls progress faster in skeletal prenatal development, though on average boys are born taller and heavier - More males tan female foetuses are conceived, more males are also spontaneously aborted. They also are more likely to present with congenital malformations and injuries at birth. In utero, they are more vulnerable to external stressors. This vulnerability continues throughout life, with males dying younger and being more prone to behavioural and learning difficulties - Male foetuses are more physically active, while female foetuses are more sensitive to external stimuli Prenatal Behaviour - The foetus reacts to sound with heart rate changes, head turns and body movements -- by the 25^th^ week. A late term foetus displays neurological responses to sound - The foetus can distinguish between familiar and novel stimuli (sounds which have never been heard before) -- by 32^nd^ week, which indicates learning. Moreover, newborns seem to remember stimuli to which they had been exposed prenatally - The debate continues as to whether prenatal learning affects later development [Atypical Prenatal Development ] Genetic Disorders -- autosomal or sex-linked 1. Autosomal Disorders: caused by recessive genes (both parents carry the same copy of the latent gene), generally found on chromosome 1-22 (ex. PKU, sickle cell anaemia). Dominant genes can also cause autosomal disorders (Huntington's) 2. Sex-linked disorders: mostly caused by recessive genes, found on chromosome 23 (ex. haemophilia, red-green colour blindness) Chromosomal Errors - Chromosomal Anomalies: may be a result of trisomies or sex-chromosome abnormalities - Trisomy: a condition in which there are 3 copies of a particular autosome (ex. down syndrome -- trisomy 21) - Sex chromosome anomalies are linked with incomplete or incorrect division of either chromosome (XXY- boys with Klinefelter's syndrome) (XO-girls with Turner's syndrome) Teratogens - Deviant prenatal development can result from variations in the environment in which the child is nurtured - An organ system is most vulnerable to disruption at the time when it is developing most rapidly, usually in the first trimester - Teratogens include: - Maternal diseases (rubella, HIV, cytomegalovirus, chronic illness, environmental hazards) - Substance abuse (smoking, alcohol, cocaine, heroin, marijuana - Other factors: vitamin A deficiency, chemicals, prescription drugs, maternal diet/age, poverty, emotional state **[Birth and Early Infancy]** [Birth: Stages of labour] 1. Dilation and effacement: this stage typically lasts from 8-12 hours, taking longer in first births, and when anesthesia is employed - Dilation: the opening up of the cervix - Effacement: the flattening out of the cervix 2. Delivery: when the cervix is fully dilated and pushing occurs, and takes from 20-50 mins 3. Afterbirth: brief and involves the birthing of the placenta and other uterine material  Things to check: muscle flaccidity, heart rate, respiratory effort, reflex irritability, colour  The baby would be slower at birth because of anesthesia  [Behaviour in Early Infancy] Reflexes: physical responses triggered involuntary by specific stimuli  - Some reflexes persist to adulthood  - Adaptive reflexes: essential for the baby's survival, disappear in the 1st year of life (help the baby adapt to living) - sucking and swallowing, rooting reflex etc. - Primitive reflexes: not necessary for survival, disappear in the first year of life (moro reflexes, primitive reflexes), they are linked to later behaviour patterns  Types of Reflexes - Palmar Reflex:  lost over the first 3 months  - Plantar Grasp Reflex: balls of the baby's feet - lost shortly after the childs is able to walk  - Moro Reflex: the baby\'s head is not supported to see reaction  - Asymmetric Tonic Neck Reflex: baby's head is directed towards the side (fencing position) - lost by the 6th month  - Babinski sign: disappears by the time the child learns to walk, good in babies, but very negative in adults  - Parachute Reaction: develops after 6 months, extends its arms downwards  With respect to behaviour, neonates (newborn children) display 5 states of consciousness, with the full cycle repeating itself every 2 hours. They sleep 90% of the time - Deep sleep, Active sleep, Quiet awake, Active awake, Crying and fussing Crying may take up to 11% of the time (2nd most normal behavioural state). It intensifies by the 6th week and then drops off. It signifies different needs, with different cries for different needs - Colic cry (gas) -- more present in boys Balance test with infants  - Forward Support Reaction - 6 months - Sideways Support Reaction - 7 months  - Backwards Support Reaction - 11 months  Physical and Cognitive Abilities - Motor skills emerge gradually in the early weeks. Improvement of motor skills follo**ws 2 broad patterns ** 1. Cephalocaudal: development proceeds from the head downwards 2. Proximodistal: from the torso outwards Babies perform a limited range of motor skills in a repetitive manner  Thelen: these movements do not seem to be totally voluntary or coordinated, but they are not random. They prepare the babies for future motoric movement The neonate's perceptual skills are more advanced than motor skills  1. Focus both eyes on the same spot, discriminate the mother's face from others, follow moving objects (after a few weeks) 2. Hear sounds in pitch and loudness of the human voice, roughly locate objects by sound, discriminate some individual noises (mostly the mother's voice) 3. Taste the 4 basic tastes and identify familiar sounds - females have a heightened sense of smell Bayleys: premature babies are more delayed at birth  With respect to learning, it is evident that the babies can be Classically Conditioned - they learn through Operant Conditioning  The baby also starts to organise experiences into expectancies, helping it to start distinguishing novel events from familiar ones - schematic learning Habituation (to get used to something) is also present in the newborn's repertoire  Temperament and Social Skills  - Temperament: the inborn predispositions that form the foundations of personality. It might include reactions to new situations, moods, activity rates and preference for social interactions Thomas and Chess**:** classified neonates in 3 types  - Easy to introduce to new people, things etc. - Difficult: say no to everything  - Slow-to-warm up: may ease up by time  Although traits are present at birth, inborn temperamental differences are shaped, strengthened, bent, or counteracted by the child's relationships and experiences   A newborn can exhibit interest, distress, disgust and a half-smile - these emotions increase in the first month of life ro include others such as anger, joy, fear and surprise  The symbiotic relationship between the parents and the baby: separation causes these emotions Beginnings of turn-taking are possibly present; the first sign is the presence of eye contact  Health and Wellness in Early Infancy  - Adequate nutrition: a baby eats 10 times a day, solids are given at 4-6 months - Healthcare and Immunisation: medical screenings, vaccinations Illnesses in Infancy - Diarrhoea -- causes 3.5 million deaths  - Upper respiratory tract infections and ear infections are also common Infant Mortality  - USA - 7/1000 babies die before 1 year - Many babies die from SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome) -- because of factors such as sleeping positions, being male, being African American, having a low birth weight  **[Physical Development ]** [Brain and Nervous System] Main structures of the brain - Midbrain - Cerebellum - Cortex - Spinal cord - Medulla Midbrain and Medulla - Both in the lower part of the skull, connected to spinal cord - Control vital activities ex. heartbeat and respiration, and arousal states - The most fully developed at birth Cortex - Convoluted grey matter wrapped around the midbrain - Least developed at birth - Involved in perception, body movement, thinking and language - Several critical processes contribute to the changes which continue to occur in the brain and the nervous system throughout childhood: 1. Growth Spurts: brain grows in spurts, rather than a continuous smooth fashion. Growth spurts are localised rather than applicable to the whole brain. 2 major growth spurts occur in adolescence: - The first takes places in the areas of the brain which control spatial perception and motor functions - The second takes place in the frontal lobes, which control logic and planning 2. Synaptic Development: synaptogenesis or the process of creating connections between neurons, resulting in the growth of both dendrites and axons, contributes to brain growth. At the cortical level, this occurs rapidly during the first 2 years of life. This is what followed by a period of synaptic "pruning", where unnecessary cortical connections are eliminated, resulting in selective retention of the most efficient pathways. Pruning continues to occur in spurts throughout childhood and adolescence, in different parts of the brain, at different times. 3. Myelination: the process though which sheaths are created around individual axons to insulate them from one another electrically and to improve conductivity of the nerves. Myelination is most rapid during the first 2 years of life, and continues at a slower pace at least until early adulthood. In fact, children's attention becomes progressively better through myelination of the reticular formation (part of the brain controlling attention), as is selective attention, through the myelination of the neurons which link the reticular formation to the frontal lobes 4. Lateralisation: the specialisation in function that occurs in the two hemispheres of the brain. The growth of the corpus callosum throughout childhood accompanies lateralisation. Most people are left-brain dominant (95%) while a few are right-brain dominant 3 main parts - Reptilian (back): controls survival, instincts (physiological needs- temp control, eating - Frontal part: controls foresight, judgement, higher order thought Hypnopompic -- going into sleep Hypnogogic -- going out of sleep [Bones, Muscles and Motor Skills] Main changes in the body 1. Patterns of change in size and shape: at 2 years, a toddler is about half as tall as he will be as an adult. Growth from birth to maturity is neither continuous nor smooth. 3 distinct growth phases can be identified, with growth spurt occurring primarily in adolescence, for both males and females, although it is larger for males 2. Bones: hand, wrist, ankle and foot all have fewer bones at birth than they will have at full maturity. The process (ossification) occurs earlier in girls. The fontanels fuse by the age of 18 months, creating a single connected skull bone. Bones also go through a process of ossification, where the quality of the bones change 3. Muscles and fat: like bones, muscle quality changes in childhood. Muscles become longer and thicker. A muscle growth spurt occurs in adolescence,. The substantial difference in strength is one reflection of the sex difference in muscle mass. This is largely the result of hormone differences, although differences in exercise patterns or fitness levels may also play some role. Fat storage is different between the sexes. As from birth, girls have slightly more fat tissue than boys. 4. Using the body: the ability to use the body to carry out physical activities involves the interaction of several separate systems. One such measure is stamina, which increases throughout childhood and is linked to the growth of the heart and lungs. The lungs increase in size and heartrate drops. Motor development includes both movement skills, which are termed gross motor skills, and manipulative skills, also knows as fine motor skills. As a general rule, gross motor skills develop earlier Monotropicity -- the baby attaches to only 1 person [The Endocrine and Reproductive Systems] - The Development of Sexual Maturity - Hormones: secretions of the various endocrine glands, which govern overall physical growth and sexual maturation. The pituitary gland provides the trigger for the release of hormones from other glands. It also secretes increased levels of gonadotrophic hormones in puberty, which are linked to the secretion of sex hormones. The main changes in puberty are those linked to sexual development, both in primary and secondary sexual characteristics - Sequence of Changes: boys and girls go through sequential changes during puberty. Apart from the growth spurt and the development of primary and secondary sexual characteristics in both sexes, girls go through menarche and boys develop viable sperm - The timing of puberty: early developing girls display more psychological and adjustment difficulties than average or late developers. Early developing boys display the opposite. [\ ] **[Personality Development]** We associate traits as based on social constructs The shadow of the unconscious projects our own beta particles (the negative elements of the unconscious) onto others in society Alpha particles -- positive elements Beta particles/ facets -- negative elements -- transferred from the child onto the mother, who is more mature and capable and transfers them as alpha facets to the child Personality: the collection of relatively enduring patterns of reacting to and interacting with others and the environment that distinguishes each child or adult - Identification of the basic dimensions of personality would enable a profile of key traits. - Reaching consensus (a one dimensional analysis of personality) was difficult due to different cultures -- different cultures raise children differently [The Big 5 ] A set of variations among 5 major dimensions for adult personality These traits seem to be stable across time and present in adults from various cultures, including non-Western ones Studies have linked these dimensions to behaviour in a wide variety of real life situations 1. Extraversion: the degree to which one interacts with the environment around them vs avoiding social experiences 2. Agreeableness: the extent to which a person's interpersonal interactions are characterised by warmth and compassion vs antagonism 3. Conscientiousness: the extent and strength of a person's impulse control 4. Neuroticism (emotional in/stability): the extent to which a person experiences the world as distressing or threatening 5. Openness/Intellect: reflects the depth, complexity, and quality of a person's mental and experiential life These traits mainly apply to children, but not only Temperament: represents the emotional substrate of the personality, the set of core qualities or response patters that are visible ni infancy and reflected in such things as activity level, "soothability", fearfulness, and sociability. Personality reflects how the basic pattern has been affected by numerous life experiences Discovering whether research supports the notion of temperament as a substrate of personality has been made difficult by the fact that temperament researchers, unlike adult-personality researchers, have not yet agreed on the best way to characterise variations in early temperament. One of the most persistent obstacles to achieving a standard definition is universality of dimensions of temperament, as temperament does not appear to be standard across cultures [Genetic and Biological Explanations of Personality ] - The argument that the origins of personality are biological is based on 4 major propositions 1. Each individual is born with genetically determined characteristic patterns of responding to the environment and to other people 2. Genetic differences operate via variations in fundamental physiological processes 3. Temperamental dispositions persist through childhood and into adulthood 4. Temperamental characteristics interact with the child's environment in ways that may either strengthen or modify the basic temperamental pattern [The Learning Argument ] - Whilst not rejecting biological factors (hormones) or inherited factors (alcoholism), learning theorists look at the reinforcement patterns in the environment as the primary cause of differences in children's personality patterns - The Radical Behaviourists argue that only the basic principles of Classical and Operant Conditioning are needed to account for variations in behaviour. Others, such as Bandura, focus on both observational learning and cognitive elements - Learning arguments about the origins of personality are based on 4 major propositions, with the first 2 being shared amongst all Behaviourists 1. Behaviour is strengthened by reinforcement (ex. mother of clingy children can reinforce their babies' behaviour) 2. Behaviour that is reinforced on a partial schedule should be even stronger and resistant to extinction than behaviour that is consistently reinforced 3. Children learn new behaviours largely through modelling. Bandura added that modelling depends on what the child pays attention to and what they are able to remember; what they are physically able to copy; and what they are motivated to imitate 4. From reinforcement and modelling, children also learn not only overt behaviour but also ideas, expectation, internal standards, and self-concepts (covert) Psychoanalytic Explanation of Personality - Psychoanalytic Theorists believe that the interaction between the child's inborn characteristics and the environment play a central role in shaping differences in personality. The main differences is that Psychoanalytic Theories are clearly developmental, describing systemic changes in children's sense of self, in their needs or drives, and in their relationships with others [The Psychoanalytic Argyment ] The Psychoanalytic Movement put forward 4 major propositions to explain the origins of personality 1. Behaviour is governed by unconscious as well as conscious motives and processes (libido, life preserving forces, aggressive drives, drive for identity) 2. Personality structure develops over time, as a result of the interaction between the child's inborn drives and needs and the responses of the key people in the child's world (ID, Ego, Superego) 3. Personality Development is fundamentally stage-like, with each stage centred on a particular task or a particular basic need 4. The specific personality a child develops depends on the degree of success the child has in moving through the various developmental psychosexual or psychosocial stages. The success of the earliest stages and the adequacy of the relationship between the child and the central caregiver is considered to be of crucial significance **[Psychosexual and Psychosocial Development in the light of Personality Development ]** Freud -- the nature of the stages - Psychosexual development begins in early infancy and develops through a series of universal predetermined stages, regardless of society or culture. Development at each stage may be arrested by fixation or regression - Each stage is named according to the body zone which provides libido satisfaction [The Psychosexual Stages ] 1. Oral Stage -- birth to 1 year The mouth is the main source of pleasure The major developmental task is weaning Pleasure is demonstrated by activities such as thumb sucking or mouthing, while displeasure is demonstrated by spitting. Fixations at this stage may result in oral behaviours in adulthood, such as overeating or smoking The baby operates from the ID position, with the ego still being undeveloped 2. Anal Stage -- 1-3 years The libido is transferred to the other autoerotic (can be satisfied by oneself) zone, which is the anal region, possibly due to this stage's major developmental task of toilet training Fixations may result in adult excessive orderliness and stinginess or the opposite The ego develops as the child starts to regulate bodily impulses and to delay immediate gratification to meet the demands of the external world The child derives a feeling of pleasure and a feeling of power when engaging in anal activity 3. Phallic Stage -- 3-5 years Children derive pleasure in touching and manipulating their own sex organs, and masturbation takes place. Fantasies and preoccupations with sexuality start to appear Eventually, the self as the love object starts being replaced by the opposite sex parent The major developmental task of this stage is the Oedipus complex/Electra complex. Children face an ambivalent situation of identification and aggression towards the same sex parent Fixations may result in adult vanity and recklessness or the opposite The boy develops an obsession with the mother and identifies with the father for 2 reasons; to have an ally, and to get through to the mother through identification - Castration anxiety from the father -- fear that his father will castrate him - Realises that his father is stronger and mightier 4. Sexual latency stage -- 5-12 years Libidinal forces calm down, and identification with the same sex parent becomes strong. This identification is extended to friends of the same sex The major developmental task is the development of ego defense mechanisms Fixation does not normally occur There is also development of the superego Important social and moral values are acquired and schooling becomes of great importance (similar to apprenticeship for life -- Erikson) 5. Genital stage -- 12-18 years and adulthood Puberty occurs due to the biological maturation of the hormonal and reproductive systems This period is characterised by an intensive overdrive of sexual tension, and a more mature form of sexual attachment occurs The major developmental task is that of mature sexual intimacy, reached through the healthy resolution of the previous stages These intense sexual drives are restrained by social demands for adherence to moral values. Negative societal views of teenagers engaging in sexual practices complicates the situation [Erikson's Psychosexual Stages ] Initially a disciple of Freud, but separated from his ideology because of libidinal drive He placed less emphasis on sexual drive and focused on the emergence of a sense of identity He argued that although early years are important, identity is not fully formed at the end of adolescence and further development is achieved in adulthood Ex. lifelong ego-identity concerns include major role transitions (ex. leaving home for the first time; getting married) Nature of the Stages - There are 8 stages of development, with each stage being characterised by a crisis. Crisis refers not just to emotional turmoil but also to possibilities for growth - There are 2 possible outcomes in every stage and the individual actually experiences both sides of the conflict. The bipolar nature of the social crisis gives each stage its name 1. Trust and Mistrust -- birth-18 months The development of trust includes trusting others and developing a sense of one's own trustworthiness. This sense of trust facilities later development The necessary prerequisite for the development of trust is maternal love and care, a consistent and predictable pattern through which infants' basic needs are satisfied 2. Autonomy and Shame and Doubt -- 18 months-3 ½ years The main issue in this step is between becoming an autonomous, creative individual or a dependent, inhibited and shameful individual, filled with self-doubt Although still dependent on others, children will start to develop autonomous choices. Exaggerated signs of autonomy may include temper tantrums, 'yes-no' game, and a mastery of self-control 3. Initiative and Guilt -- 3 ½ years-6 years The child is driven by an intense need to actively and curiously explore and conquer the world in an energetic fashion If this curiosity is interpreted as intrusion or aggression by the parent, and the child is punished or inhibited, initiative may wane and a sense of immobilisation (through fear or guilt) may develop 4. Industry and Inferiority -- 6-12 years The period between school entry and puberty is an intense time of learning and mastering of societal skills. Children will learn to take pride in their work and will seek to work hard to achieve a sense of success This period is often described as 'the apprenticeship for life' 5. Identity and Identity Confusion (adolescence) The adolescent struggles to search for a personal identity and seeks to answer questions. Erikson stated that the adolescent works to establish both a sexual identity and an occupational identity Identity must be acquired through sustained individual effort. Failure to actively work on identity formation may result in identity confusion The 3 remaining stages are worked through adulthood 6. Intimacy and Isolation (young adulthood) 7. Generativity and Stagnation (adulthood) 8. Integrity and Despair (old age) [James Marcia's Theory of Identity Achievement ] Focus on expanding and elaborating Erikson's psycho-social theory, especially Identity and Identity Confusion The criteria for attainment of a mature identity are based on 2 essential variables that Erikson had already identified - Crisis - Commitment Exploration: an active examination of developmental opportunities, identity issues and parentally defined goals and values. A search for personally appropriate alternatives in reosent to occupation, goals, values and beliefs ensues Commitment: involvement in and allegiance to the self-chosen aspiration, goals, values, beliefs and occupation [Taxonomy of Identity Status] When applying the criteria of absence or presence of crisis and commitment, 4 distinct identity statuses emerge. These can happen at any age and in no sequential order 1. Identity diffusion or identity confusion No crisis/challenge, no commitment 'Drifting' through life 2. Foreclosure No crisis, strong commitment Firm allegiance to something without the potential to grow 3. Moratorium Yes crisis, no commitment 4. Identity achievement Yes crisis, yes commitment Not necessarily permanent, ex. your husband could leave you and you lose your identity [Bowlby's Theory of Attachment ] Examined family interaction patterns involved in both healthy and pathological development Attachment behaviour is an evolutionary survival strategy for protecting the infant from predators. A close "biologically based" bond develops between infant and carer, which is as vital to the human infant as basic reflexes such as feeding. While the biological function of attachment provides survival, the psychological function provides security Infants are programmed to maintain proximity to the mother and they signal in times of need or distress. This strategy however is only successful if the mother responds to these distress signals. In fact, Bowlby stated that the mother is also genetically equipped to pick up such attachment responses such as crying, clinging and following and to respond accordingly -- the mother cannot do this in instances such as postpartum depression Attachment: Developmental Changes - Stated that during the first 2 years of life, the attachment of infants goes through various developmental changes. Over time, an affectional bond develops, which is supported by new cognitive and emotional capacities, as well as a history of maternal sensitive and responsive care - Proposed a 4 stage framework for understanding these developmental attachment changes. Out of these attachment experiences, children construct an enduring emotional tie with the caregiver that permits them to use the attachment figure as a secure base across time and distance. The internalisation of the parent-child bond becomes the template for future relationships 4 stages 1. The Pre-Attachment Phase -- birth to 6 weeks Built in signals ex gazing help bring newborns into close contact with significant others The infants' responses when soothed or held urges the carer to further increase interaction Altough newborns can recognise maternal smell and voice, attachment has not yet occurred, as babies may be left with unfamiliar adults without showing any visible distress 2. The "attachment-in-the-making" -- 6 weeks to 6-8 months Infants start to respond differently to caregivers than to strangers, although they still do not protest when separated from the carer. Infants learn that their actions will affect the behaviour of others and they develop an expectation that the carer will respond when signalled 3. The phase of "clear-cut" attachment -- 6/8 months to 18 months/2 years Attachment to a familiar caregiver is now in place and separation anxiety, which reaches its peak at 15 months, is hence present The development at this stage of Piaget's concept of object permanence suggests that infants have a clear understanding that the caregiver still exists when not physically present -- anxiety increases in this stage due to object permanence 4. Formation of reciprocal relationships -- 18months -- 2 years onwards Separation distress declines as the growth in language and cognition helps the child to understand some factors for the caregiver's absence and to predict the eventual return. Rather than using the psychomotor capacity to signal to the parent, the child now uses language to engage meaningfully **[The Ecology of Development: The Child within the Family]** Bronfenbrenner's **Bioecological Theory** - This approach focuses on external forces which may impact on a child - Proposed that a child grows up in a complex social environment (ecology), with a number of significant people - His model focuses on how the components of this complex system interact to affect the development of the individual child - The child is considered to be at the centre of a series of concentric circles - Elements in each circle influence the circle inside it - A human being consists of biological makeup and is most directly influenced by immediate environment - The immediate environment is influenced by the social and economic context - The social and economic context is influenced by cultural context -- beliefs, values, moral guidelines - A person interacts with these contexts as part of a system -- 2-way interaction - Microsystem: social agents (ex. mother and child relationship) - Mesosystem: how the carer and an outsider's relationship impacts the child - Exosystem: places/contexts which the child does not face directly, but will impact him - Macrosystem: global - Chronosystem : the impact of time Microsystem - The setting in which an individual lives - Includes family, peers, school and immediate neighbourhood - The child has the most direct interactions with these agents - The individual helps construct settings, therefore is not passive -- reciprocity Mesosystem - The relatioons between microsystems, the connections between contexts - The relation of family experiences to school experiences, school to church, family to peers (ex. a mother who argues with the class teacher may create a ripple effect on the child) Exosystem - Composed of experiences in a social setting in which an individual does not have an active role but which nevertheless influence experience in an immediate context (ex. a parent's job experiences will affect family life which, in turn, will affect children; the social network of parents) - The environment is external to the child Macrosystem - The attitudes/ideologies of the culture in which an individual lives (ex. religion, democracy, ethnicity) - The patterning of environmental events and life transitions over the life course; effects created by time or critical periods in development - Any normative transition - Non-normative events - Socio-historic conditions [Baumrind's Parenting Styles] Diane Baumrind proposed a system of child rearing which looks at combinations of the following: - Warmth (nurturance) - Level of expectations (maturity demands) - The clarity and consistency of rules (control) - Communication between parent and child Types of Parenting Styles Three specific combinations of the characteristics were proposed: 1. The permissive style: high in nurturance but low in maturity demands, control, and communication 2. The authoritarian style: high in control and maturity demands but low in nurturance and communication 3. The authoritative style: high in all four variables