Research Methods in Health Terminology Definitions PDF

Terminology Definitions in HLSC 2P27: Research Methods in Health 1st Lecture & Textbook Reading: Basic Medical Research (Basic Science): Studies Molecules, Genes, Cells, and Other Smaller Biological Components Related to Human Function and Health. It Addresses Mechanisms that Underlie the F...

Terminology Definitions in HLSC 2P27: Research Methods in Health 1st Lecture & Textbook Reading: Basic Medical Research (Basic Science): Studies Molecules, Genes, Cells, and Other Smaller Biological Components Related to Human Function and Health. It Addresses Mechanisms that Underlie the Formation and Function of Living Organisms, ranging from the Study of Single Molecules to Complex Integrated Functions of Humans, and it Contributes Profoundly to our Knowledge of How Disease, Trauma, or Genetic Defects Alter Normal Physiological and Behavioural Processes. Brainstorming: Is the Process of Generating Long Lists of Spontaneous Ideas about Possible Research Questions. Clinical Research: Evaluates the Best Ways to Prevent, Diagnose, and Treat Adverse Health Issues that Adversely Affect Individuals. Clinical Research GENERALLY Uses Humans as the Unit of Investigation (UNLIKE Laboratory Research). Concept Mapping: A Related Process to Brainstorming, it is a Visual Method of Listing Ideas and then Grouping them Together to Reveal Relationships. Conceptual Framework: This is a Model that a Researcher sketches using Boxes and Arrows to Illustrate the Various Relationships that will be Evaluated during a Study. EDP: Stands for Exposure and Disease/Outcome in Population. Many Topics in Public Health Research can be Expressed using this Formula: Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM): Uses the Results of RIGOROUS Research Studies to Optimize Clinical Decision Making. It starts with a Comprehensive Literature Search, then the MOST Relevant, High-Quality Reports are then Evaluated; Key Findings are Summarized in Practice Guidelines, and it Enables skilled Clinicians to Integrate the BEST Research into their Assessments. Evidence-Based Practice: This is used in a Variety of Fields to Encourage Experienced Professionals to Integrate Research into their Decision-Making Processes. Exposure: Exposure is a Personal Characteristic, Behaviour, Environmental Encounter, or Intervention that MIGHT Change the Likelihood of Developing a Health Condition. Falsifiable: Able to be Proven FALSE. Generalizability: This Ensures that Findings can be applied to a Wider Population, not just the Specific Group Studied. It also Helps in Developing Interventions, Policies, and Practices that can be Implemented in Diverse Settings. 1|Page Health Belief Model (HBM): This Model seeks to Explain and Predict Health Behaviours by Focusing on Individual’s Attitudes and Beliefs. It Posits Six Constructs that can Predict Health Behaviour: Risk Susceptibility, Risk Severity, Benefits to Action, Barriers to Action, Self-Efficacy, and Cues to Action. It is also a GOOD Example of a Theoretical Framework. Health Research: The Investigation of Health and Disease or any of the Factors that Contribute to the Presence or Absence of Physical, Mental, and Social Health among Individuals, Families, Communities, Nations, or the World Population as a Whole. Hypothesis (Hypotheses): An Informed Assumption about the Likely Outcome of a Well-Designed Investigation that can be Tested using Scientific Methods. Oftentimes, Research Questions are also Expressed as Hypotheses. Independent Objectives: The Specific Aims are Related but are INDEPENDENT of one another. If One Objective cannot be Achieved, it is still possible to SUCCESSFULLY Complete the other Objectives. Keywords can be Plugged into this Formula to Generate Possible Research Questions. Modifiable Risk Factors: Is a Risk Factor for a Disease that can be AVOIDED or MITIGATED. Identifying Modifiable Risk Factors Enables Effective Preventive Interventions to be Developed. Nonmodifiable Risk Factor: Is a Risk Factor for a Disease that CANNOT BE CHANGED through Health Interventions. Think Aging. Originality: This Describes the Aspects of a New Research Project that are Novel and will allow it to make a Unique Contribution to Health Science Literature. For a Research Project to Demonstrate Originality, it NEEDS to have ONE Substantive Difference from Previous Work. Outcome: It is an Observed Event such as the Presence of Disease in a Participant in an Observational Study or the Measured Endpoint in an Experimental Study. For many Health Research Projects, the Outcome Studied is a Disease, Defined as the Presence of Signs or Symptoms of Poor Health. PICOT: Method used to Develop Clinical Research Questions, It stands for: P = What is the PATIENT/POPULATION group and what Problem will be studied? I = What is the INTERVENTION that will be Tested? C = What will the INTERVENTION be COMPARED to? O = What is the OUTCOME of Interest? T = What is the TIMEFRAME for follow-up? Population Health Research: Examines Health Outcomes at the Community, Regional, National, and Worldwide Levels. It assesses Population Needs and Capacities, Design, Implementation, and Test Population-Based Health Interventions; and Evaluates Population-Based Health Programs, Projects and Policies. Population Health: Focuses on the Health Outcomes and the Determinants of Health in a SPECIFIC GROUP of People or Community within the Public at Large. Population: This is a Group of Individuals, Communities, or Organizations that we wish to Examine in s Study. 2|Page Prevention: Any Actions Taken to Reduce the Incidence or Impact of Diseases, such as: Promoting Health and Wellbeing, Protecting Individuals from Potential Risks, or Minimizing the Burden of Diseases on Individuals and Communities. There are 3 Main Types of Prevention: Primary -) Which Prevents Disease Onset by AVOIDING its Development or Removing its Risk Factor, Secondary -) Which Occurs after Disease Onset has Occurred, It Prevents by Minimizing the Burden via Early Detection, Treatment, and Preventing its Progression, and Tertiary -) Which Occurs after the Clinical Diagnosis, which Prevents by Reducing the Complications of the Established Disease. Protective Factor: Is an Exposure that REDUCES an Individual’s Likelihood of Subsequently Experiencing a Particular Disease or Outcome. Public Health: Consists of the Actions taken to Promote Health and Prevent Injuries, Illnesses, and Early Deaths at the POPULATION Level. A.K.A Focuses on the Public at Large versus the Population Health. Research/Research Processes: Research is the Process of Systematically and Carefully Investigating a Topic in Order to Discover New Insights about the World. The Research Process has 5 Steps: Identify Study Question, Select Study Approach, Design Study and Collect Data, Analyze Data, and Report Findings. A Research Project is NOT Finished until ALL 5 STEPS are Completed. Risk Factor: Is an Exposure that INCREASES an Individual’s Likelihood of Subsequently Experiencing a Particular Disease or Outcome. Sequential Objectives: The Specific Aims are a Chronological List of Actions that will Achieve the Main Goal. SMART: Acronym used to State the Characteristics of a Good Goal Statement / Specific Aim. SMART stands for: S = Specific, M = Measurable, A = Attainable/Achievable, R = Relevant/Realistic, and T = Timely. Specific Aims (Or Objectives): This is a Carefully Described Action that will help the Researcher make Progress toward Achieving the Big-Picture Goal. They make take the form of a Series of Hypotheses that will be Tested. Testability: Is the Ability of a Research Question to be answered using Experiments or other Types of Measurements. The Social Ecological Model: This Model Conceptualizes Health Broadly and Focuses on Multiple Factors that might Affect Health. It is also another GOOD Example of Theoretical Framework. Theoretical Framework: Is a Set of Established Models in the Published Literature that can Inform the Components and Flows of the Conceptual Framework for a New Research Study. Translation: It is a Multi-Step Process of Turning Observations from the Lab, Clinic, and Community, into Interventions that Improves People’s Lives in the Form of Diagnostics, Therapeutics, Medical Procedures, Devices, and Behavioural Changes. 3|Page Translational Research: Bridges Basic Research and Clinical Research by Applying Scientific Discoveries to the Improvement of Clinical Outcomes. It Aims to Move Research from the Bench (Laboratory) to the Bedside (Clinical Care Settings). 2nd Lecture and Textbook Reading: Active Surveillance: A Type of Surveillance in which Public Health Officials Contact Healthcare Providers to Ask about Disease Diagnoses. Analytic Studies: A Type of Research Method that Tests a HYPOTHESIS About the RELATIONSHIP of a Disease to the CAUSE (Cause & Effect), by Conducting an Epidemiological Study that Relates to the Exposure of Interest to the Disease of Interest. Example: Cohort, Case-Control, and Interventional Studies (Clinical Trials). Association Limitation: This Means the Study CANNOT Establish Cause-and-Effect Relationships. There is no Incidence Information, which can Lead to Biases and Confounding. Case Definition: Its Purpose is to Ensure that Cases are Counted in a Systematic and Consistent Manner to Enable Comparison and Analysis of Trends. They are Essential for Effective Outbreak Investigation. Case Detection Rate (CDR): This Measures the Proportion of People Diagnosed with a Disease, Low CDR Indicates Fewer Tests for Suspected Diseases. Case Report: It is a Detailed and Descriptive Account of a SINGLE Individual’s Health Condition, Disease, Symptoms, or Treatment. It can Also be a Comprehensive Analysis of a Unique or Rare Case. It Usually Serves as an Initial Observation for Potential New Diseases or Adverse Effects of Treatments. Case Series: A Collection of Case Reports for a Group of Individuals who Share SIMILAR Characteristics or Experiences. Cross-Sectional Studies: Also Known as “Prevalence Studies”, They are Observational Studies that Analyze Data from a Population at a SINGLE Point in Time. They are often Used to Measure the Prevalence of Health Outcomes, Understand Determinants of Health, and Describe Features of a Population. They can Either be Analytical or Descriptive in Nature. Cumulative Incidence (CI): Also Known as “Incidence Proportion”, it is the Proportion of Individuals who Develop a Particular Disease within a Specified Time Period. It Provides an Estimate of the Risk of Developing the Disease in a Population. It is Calculated by DIVIDING the Number of New Cases of a 4|Page  Disease Occurring in the Population During a Specified Period of Time by the Number of Persons at Risk of Developing the Disease during that Period of Time. Descriptive Studies: A Type of Research Method that DESCRIBES the Distribution of a Disease in a Population and Observes the Basic Features of its Distribution in terms of TIME, PLACE, and PERSON. Example: Descriptive or Cross-Sectional Studies. Ecologic Fallacy: This Occurs when Inferences are made about Individual-Level Relationships based SOLELY on Group-Level Data. It Mistakenly Assumes that an Observed Association at the Population Level Applies to ALL Individuals Within that Population. Ecologic Studies: Also Known as” Correlational Studies”, are Measurements and Analysis Conducted on the Population Level. Incidence Rate (IR): Also Known as “Incidence Density”, It is Calculated when Different Individuals are Observed for Different Lengths of Time. It is Calculated by DIVIDING the Cumulative Incidence by the Person-time. Incidence: The Number of New Cases (of Disease) over a Period of Time. Interventional Studies: A Type of Research Method that Tests a Hypothesis about the Impact of an Intervention on a Clinical or Health Outcome. Example: Clinical Trials. Lifetime Prevalence: A Type of Period Prevalence that is the Population of Individuals KNOWN to HAVE HAD the Disease for at Least PART of Their Lives. Observational Studies: A Type of Research Method that Develops/Tests a HYPOTHESIS about the RELATIONSHIP/ASSOCIATION of a Disease to a Cause (Cause & Effect), by Conducting an Epidemiological Study that Relates to the Exposure of Interest to the Disease of Interest. Example: Descriptive, Cohort, or Case-Control Studies. Odds Ratio (OR): It is a Measure of the Odds that an Outcome WILL Occur Given a Particular Exposure. It is Calculated by: (A / B) / (C / D). Passive Surveillance: A Type of Surveillance in which Medical Laboratories Submit Reports of Notifiable Disease Diagnoses. Period Prevalence: This is the Proportion of Individuals in a Population who HAVE a Particular Disease of a DEFINED PERIOD. It Considers ALL Cases of the Disease within that Time Frame, Regardless of When the Diagnosis was Made. It is Calculated by DIVIDNG the Number of Individuals with that Particular 5|Page  Disease in the Defined Period of Time by the Total Population and MULTIPLYING the Result by 100 to get a Percentage. Person-time: It is the SUM of the Time Periods of Observation of Each Person who has been Observed for All or Part of the Entire Time Period. Point Prevalence: This is the Proportion of Individuals in a Population WHO HAVE a Particular Disease at a SPECIFIC Point in Time. Point Prevalence Provides a Snapshot Estimate of the Disease Burden AT THAT PARTICULAR MOMENT. It is Calculated by DIVIDING the Number of Individuals with the Disease at that Point in Time by the Total Population and MULTIPLYING the Result by 100 to get a Percentage. Prevalence Ratio (PR): It is the RATE of the Proportion of the Persons with the Disease over the Proportion with the Exposure. It is Calculated by DIVIDING the Incidence Rate in the Exposed Group by the Number of People in Both Groups Added Together MULTIPLIED by 100 to get a Percentage. Prevalence: The Proportion of Individuals WITH the Condition (Disease) at a Single Point in Time. Primary Data: Acquired DIRECTLY From the Source of Information. Primary Studies: They Collect and Analyze NEW DATA. Qualitative Studies: A Type of Research Method that Involves an In-Depth Exploration and Understanding of Experiences, Behaviors, and Motivations. It Relies on Non-Numerical Data such as Interviews, Focus Groups, and Observations. Interpretive Approaches and Thematic Analysis are Commonly Used. Example: Observational Study. Quantitative Studies: A Type of Research Method that Involves Data Collection and Analysis. They Focus on Measurable Variables and Statistical Analysis. Example: Descriptive and Analytical Experiments. Repeated Cross-Sectional Surveys: They Sample Different People from the Same Population at Multiple Time Points. Each Round of Data Collection Involves a New Set of Participants, NOT the Same Individuals. It Reveals Population-Level Trends Over Time but DOES NOT Track Individual Changes. Representativeness: Is the Degree to which the Participants in a Study are Similar to the Source Population from which they were Drawn. Secondary Data: Refers to ANY DATASET Collected by ANY OTHER PERSON Other Than the One Using It. Secondary Studies: They Analyze EXISTING DATA. 6|Page  Sentinel Surveillance: A Type of Surveillance that Collects High-Quality Data from Selected Clinics/Hospitals to Monitor Population-Level Health Changes. Surveillance: Is the Process of CONTINUALLY Monitoring Health Events in a Population so that Emerging Public Health Threats can be Detected, and Appropriate Control Measures can be Implemented Quickly. There Exists Many Different Types of Surveillance, Such As: Active, Passive, Syndromic, and Sentinel Surveillance. Syndromic Surveillance: A Type of Surveillance that Tracks Potential Outbreaks Based on Symptom Reports Rather than Confirmed Diagnoses. Social Media and Other Platforms can Help Detect Population Health Trends. Temporal Ambiguity: This Means the Study Challenges in Determining whether the Exposure Occurs BEFORE the Outcome. It Limits the Ability to Infer a True Casual Relationship, Leading to Reverse Causation. Tentative Explanation: Explanation WITHOUT TESTING. Tertiary Studies: They Review and Synthesize Literature. 3rd Lecture and Textbook Reading: Matching: In a Case-Control Study, it Will Describe the Process of Recruiting 1 or more Controls who are Similar to each Case, keeping in mind Important Demographic and Clinical Factors. There are 3 Often-Used Options: No Matching, Frequency (Group) Matching, and Matched-Pairs (Individual) Matching. No Matching: Where Matching DOES NOT Occur. Is often Used in Case-Control Studies. Frequency (Group) Matching: Controls are Chosen in a way that the Distribution of a Characteristic (Think Age, Gender…) is Identical in Both Cases and Controls, but NOT NECESSARILY on an Individual Level. It Ensures Group-Level Similarity in the Distribution of Matching Variables but not on a One-to-One Basis. Matched-Pairs (Individual) Matching: Each Case is PAIRED with One or More Controls Based on SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS, Guaranteeing a DIRECT Comparison between MATCHED PAIRS. Recall Bias: This is a Systematic Error that Occurs when Cases and Controls do not ACCURATELY Remember Past Events/Experiences or Leave out Details when Recalling them. It is a Problem for Studies that use Self-Reporting -) Like Case-Control Studies and Retrospective Cohort Studies. They Can Have Serious Implications on the Accuracy and Validity of Findings 7|Page  (Because Details Get Over or Under-Reported (Think Inaccurate Representation), which Fucks up Results). Point Estimate: This is the SINGLE Value of the Odds Ratio. They Usually Appear Along with a Corresponding 95% Confidence Interval (CI), which Shows whether the OR is Statistically Significant. Cohort: A Group of Similar People Followed Through Time Together. Cohort Study: This is an Observational Study that Follows People FORWARD in Time so that Incident (New) Cases of Disease Can be Recorded. Incident Diseases: Participants who DIDN’T have the Disease of Interest at the Baseline but Developed it DURING the Study (After the Baseline). Baseline: An Initial Measurement used as a BENCHMARK for Studying Changes Over Time. Longitudinal Cohort Studies (Prospective Cohort Study): It is a Study in which Population Selection is Studied, Based on a Defined Population. The Population is Chosen BEFORE Exposure or Identification of Exposures. The Selection is Based on Factors not Having to do with Exposure. The Entire Population Undergoes Histories, Tests or Assays and the Results are Used to Categorize People into Exposed or Unexposed Groups. This Study is also GOING FORWARD in Time. Retrospective Cohort Study (Historical Cohort Study or Nonconcurrent Prospective Study): A Study in which the Population of Interest is Defined BEFORE (Exposure is Determined from PAST RECORDS) the Study Begins. The Outcome is Determined at the BEGINNING of the Study. Fixed (Closed) Population: ALL Participants Start the Study AT THE SAME TIME and NO Additional Participants get Added AFTER the Study’s Start Date. Dynamic (Open) Population: Has Rolling Enrollment that Allows New Participants to Get Recruited AFTER the Study Team BEGINS to Collect Data. Loss to Follow-Up: The INABILITY to Continue Tracking a Participant in a Prospective or Longitudinal Study Because the Person DROPS OUT, RELOCATES, DIES, or STOPS RESPONDING to Study Communication for Another Reason. Risk Ratio (RR) or (Relative Risk): Is Calculated by DIVIDING the Risk of Disease among Exposed Individuals BY the Risk of Disease among Unexposed Individuals. If RR =1 -) No Difference in Risk between Groups. If RR is GREATER THAN 1, the Exposed Cohort has a HIGHER Risk of Developing the Outcome Compared to the Unexposed Cohort, Suggesting a Positive Association between the Exposure & Outcome. If RR is LESSER THAN 1, the Exposed Cohort has a LOWER Risk of Developing the Outcome Compared to the Unexposed Cohort, Suggesting a Reduced Risk of the Outcome (Possibly Protective ). Odds Ratio (OR): It is the Ratio of the Odds of the Event Occurring in an Exposed Group VERSUS a Non- Exposed Group (CONTROLS). If OR = 1 -) The Odds of Exposure are the SAME in both the Case and Control Groups. It suggests that the Exposure MAY NOT Influence the Risk of Developing the Disease. If OR is GREATER 8|Page THAN 1 -) The Odds of Exposure are HIGHER among Cases Compared to the Control Group. It Suggests an INCREASED RISK of Developing the Disease among Exposed vs Unexposed. Exposure could be a Risk Factor. If OR is LESSER THAN 1 -) The Odds of Exposure are LOWER among Cases Compared to the Control Group. It Suggests a DECREASED Risk of Developing the Disease among Exposed vs Unexposed. Exposure could be a Protective Factor. 4th Lecture and Textbook Reading: Active Intervention Group: The Group that Receives the Working Intervention during a Study. Axiology: Also known as the” Value Theory”, it is the STUDY of Values. Before & After Study Design (RCT): It Measures DIFFERENCES within a SINGLE Group BEFORE & AFTER an Intervention. Blinding: An Experimental Design Element that KEEPS Participants (and Sometimes some Members of the Research Team) from KNOWING Whether a Participant is in the ACTIVE Intervention Group or the CONTROL Group. It is INTENDED to MINIMIZE INFORMATION BIAS. Block Randomization: A Type of Randomization where GROUPS of Individuals are RANDOMIZED to a TREATMENT GROUP. Bracketing: A Process where Researchers INTENTIONALLY Set Aside Preconceived Notions about Reality to Remain OPEN to New Meanings Expressed by Participants. Carryover Effects: Residual Effects from the First Treatment can Bias Results, so a Washout Period helps Minimize this. Case Study: A Qualitative Methodology Research Approach that Examines ONE Person, Group, Event, or Situation in DETAIL using Multiple Data Sources to gain a DEEP Understanding of a Specific Event. Causality: Refers to the Idea that ONE Event, Behaviour, or Belief WILL RESULT In the Occurrence of ANOTHER Subsequent Event, Behaviour, or Belief. AKA -) Cause and Effect. Constructivism: The Idea that People Actively CONSTRUCT or MAKE THEIR OWN Knowledge, and that Reality Is Determined by your Experiences as a Learner. Controlled Trial: An Experiment with at least 2 Groups: 1. An INTERVENTION Group -) They RECEIVE the Treatment, and 2. A CONTROL/COMPARISON GROUP -) They DON’T Receive the Treatment. Convergent Parallel Design: A Mixed Method Project in Which Quantitative and Qualitative Data are Collected SIMULTANEOUSLY, then Compared and Interpreted. Critical Theory: Seeking to UNDERSTAND Human Experience as a MEANS TO CHANGE THE WORLD. 9|Page  Crossover Design: An Approach to RCT where each Participant Serves as their own CONTROL by Receiving BOTH the ACTIVE Intervention and the CONTROL at DIFFERENT TIMES. This Includes a “Washout Period” to Minimize “Carryover Effects”. However, they can be LESS CLEAR than Placebo Studies because Time Alone can Lead to Health Improvements or Declines, Especially in Very Sick Patients. Cutpoint/Threshold: A Value that DIVIDES a Numeric Variable into CATEGORIES. Example: Blood Pressure. Diagnostic Accuracy: The % of Individuals CORRECTLY CLASSIFIED by the Test as TRUE POSITIVES or TRUE NEGATIVES, Meaning the New Test and the Reference Test give the SAME Result. An Ideal Test has 100% Accuracy. Drug Trial: An Intervention with STRICT REQUIREMENTS on what is IN the Pill, with Specific ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA for Volunteers, as well as How OFTEN and for How LONG the Pills are Taken. Embedded Qualitative Studies: A Mixed Methods Project in Which Some Qualitative Studies are Integrated WITHIN a Quantitative Study. Empiricism: Guiding Principle in Quantitative Studies which assumes the 5 Senses (Touch, Smell, Sight, Hearing, and Taste), are the BEST Way to Measure the Truth About the World. Epistemology: The Study of KNOWLEDGE, which Explains how Researchers KNOW what Real and is True. Equivalence Trial: A Trial in which the Intervention is Found to be EQUAL TO the Comparison. Ethnography: Qualitative Methodology that Encompasses the Systematic Study of People and Cultures in their Natural Environments that Seeks to Develop an INSIDER’S VIEW of how Members of a Sociocultural Group Understand their World., Accomplished via Data Collection and Immersion. Exercise Study: An Intervention with CLEAR STEPS for Exercises, which INCREASE in Difficulty Over Time. There are Criteria for WHO Can Participate, HOW those Participants are Guided and Monitored, WHERE the Exercises Happen and for How Many MONTHS. Experimental Studies: They Typically Focus on Testing the EFFECTIVENESS of Interventions. Include Medical Studies and Public Health Studies. Factorial Approach to RCT: In Which TWO OR MORE Intervention Comparisons are Carried out AT THE SAME TIME. Grounded Theory: Qualitative Methodology that Utilizes an Inductive Reasoning Process that Develops General Theories to EXPLAIN Human Behaviour or Other Phenomena Via Simultaneous Data Collection, Analysis and Theoretical Sampling, until Data Saturation is Reached. Information Bias: A Type of Bias in an Epidemiological Study that Arises due to SYSTEMATIC ERROR. Intervention: A Strategic Action Intended to IMPROVE Individual/Population Health Status. 10 | P a g e  Medical Studies: A Type of Experimental Study that is Designed to Diagnose, Cure, Treat, or Prevent Adverse Health Conditions. Narrative Research: Focuses on UNDERSTANDING the STORIES or NARRATIVES that Individuals Share about their EXPERIENCES. Negative Predictive Value (NPV): The Proportion of People who Test NEGATIVE and Actually do NOT Have the Disease. It is Calculated by: DIVIDING The True Negative Rate (TN) by the SUM of the True Negative Rate (TN) and the False Negative Rate (FN). It Helps in the Clinical Decision-Making Process. Noninferiority Trial: A Trial in which the Intervention is Found to be NOT WORSE than the Comparison. Objectivism: Facts Evaluated WITHOUT Bias. Ontology: The Study of REALITY and TRUTH. Explains how Researchers DEFINE Reality and Truth. Perspective Examples of Ontology Include Realism, and Relativism. Parallel Approach to RCT: In Which Each Participant is RANDOMLY Assigned to a Group and All the Participants in the Group Either RECEIVE or DO NOT RECEIVE an Intervention. Phenomenology: Qualitative Methodology that Aims to Understand how Individuals INTERPRET and FIND MEANING in their Unique Life Experiences and Feelings. This is accomplished in Research via Data Collection and Analysis. Phenomenon: Refers to the CENTRAL CONCEPT being Studied in Qualitative Research. Positive Predictive Value (PPV): The Proportion of People who Test POSITIVE with the NEW Test and Actually HAVE the Disease. It is Calculated by: DIVIDING The True Positive Rate (TP) by the SUM of the True Positive Rate (TP) and the False Positive Rate (FP). It Helps in the Clinical Decision-Making Process. Positivism: An Approach to the Study of Society that RELIES ON Scientific Evidence to Reveal a TRUE Nature of How Society Operates. Pragmatism: Involves Research Designs that Incorporate Decisions based on WHAT WILL WORK BEST in Finding Answers for the Questions under Investigation. AKA Practical Approaches and Solutions. Prevention Science: These are Studies in which Health Interventions Work BEST for VARIOUS POPULATIONS. Prevention Science Looks at How EFFECTIVE those Health Interventions are and how to use them Widely. Public Health Studies: A Type of Experimental Study that is Designed to PREVENT Health Problems at the POPULATION LEVEL. Randomization: Reduces INITIAL DIFFERENCES between Treatment Groups at the BASELINE but does NOT Prevent Biased Treatment or Outcome Assessments LATER. Types Include Simple, Stratified, and Block Randomization. 11 | P a g e  Randomized Controlled Trial (RCT): Is a Very Common Experimental Study Design where: Participants are RANDOMLY PLACED in either the TREATMENT or CONTROL Group, and BOTH Groups are Followed OVER TIME to see if the Treatment WORKS. Approaches to RCT Include: Parallel Design, Factorial Design, Crossover Design, and Before & After Study. Realism: The Belief that ONE Reality Exists and CAN be Understood. A Realist Believes that Meaning Exists in an OBJECT, INDEPENDENT of the Investigator. It is Objective with the Facts being Evaluated without Bias. Realism fits well with Quantitative Research, as QR aims to make Objective Determinations about the World. Reference Standard: A Test Used for COMPARISON to Evaluate the VALIDITY of a New Test. Relativism: The Belief that MULTIPLE Realities Exist and CANNOT be FULLY Understood. A Relativist Believes that a SUBJECT Creates Meaning from an OBJECT. It is Subjective with Claims and Experiences being Interpreted Based on Personal Beliefs, Perceptions and Feelings. Relativism Fits well with Qualitative Research, as QR Focuses on Understanding SUBJECTIVE Aspects of the Human Experience. Screening: A Form of Secondary Prevention where People at Risk are TESTED for a Disease, Aiming for Early Intervention to IMPROVE Outcomes. Sensitivity (True Positive Rate): A FEATURE of the Test that Tests the Proportion of People with the Disease who Test POSITIVE with the NEW Test. It is Calculated by: DIVIDING the True Positives (TP) by the SUM of the True Positives (TP) and False Negatives (FN). Sequential Design: A Mixed Method Project in Which ONE Type of Study is Completed First, Followed by the OTHER Type. Simple Randomization: A Type of Randomization where each Individual is Randomized to ONE TREATMENT GROUP. Specificity (True Negative Rate): A FEATURE of the Test that Tests the Proportion of People WITHOUT the Disease who Test NEGATIVE with the NEW Test. It is Calculated by: DIVIDING the True Negatives (TN) by the SUM of the True Negatives (TN) and the False Positives (FP). Stratified Randomization: A Type of Randomization where Individuals are Grouped into STRATA and then RANDOMIZED to ONE Treatment Group. Study Success: If MORE Participants in the Intervention Group Achieve these Outcomes Compared to the Control Group, the Study is Considered SUCCESSFUL. Subjectivism: Claims and Experiences are Interpreted based on PERSONAL Beliefs, Perceptions, and Feelings. Superiority Trial: A Trial in which the Intervention is Found to be BETTER/MORE EFFECTIVE than the Comparison. Washout Period: A Break Between Treatments to Avoid Carryover Effects from the 1st Intervention. 12 | P a g e  5th Lecture and Textbook Reading: Research Protocol: Aims to Provide a DETAILED Written Description/Guide for Participant Recruitment Processes (If Relevant), Data Collection Methods, and Data Management/Analysis Procedures. It is Developed for ALL Study Types, Be it Primary, Secondary or Tertiary. Rigor: Ensures ALL Data Collection and Analysis Align CLOSELY with Study Goals and Specific Aims, Rigor Encompasses Careful Designing, Implementation, Interpretation and Reporting, addressing a CLEARLY Defined Scientific Question, and Using UNBIASED, ETHICAL APPROACHES. Reproducibility: Is the Reanalysis of Already Collected Data using the ORIGINAL PROTOCOL to Obtain the SAME Results. It Compliments Replicability. It Requires DETAILED Explanation of Participant Sampling, Data Collection, Included Variables, and Statistical Tests. Replicability: Using the SAME PROTOCOL to Collect and Analyze NEW DATA from a DIFFERENT POPULATION, Yielding Similar Conclusions. It Compliments Reproducibility. Gantt Chart: A Bar Chart that VISUALLY Displays the Research Timeline by Marking Critical Dates and Deadlines. It is Very Helpful for Visual Tracking of the Project. Research Proposal: A Written Request Mainly used for Two Purposes: Seeking APPROVAL from a Supervisor or Review Panel to Start Research or Applying for Grant Funding for Said Research. A RP Requires a Finalized Study Goal and Specific Aims, A Justification of the Value of the Proposed Study, Critical Decisions made about the Study’s Design and Methodologies, Evidence Provided Supporting the Feasibility of the Project, and an Explanation of how the Study Aligns with the Host Institution’s Expectations or Funding Entity’s Mission. Internal Grant: Grant Funding Allocated by the Researcher’s School or Employer. External Grant: Grant Funding Allocated by an Organization OUTSIDE of the Researcher’s Institution. RFP/RFA: Request for Proposals (RFP) or Applications (RFA) are a Notice from the Funding Organization Seeking Applications from Researchers. Key Elements Include Research Areas Specified to the INTEREST of the Funder, Descriptions of Types of Projects the Selection Committee will Consider, and Submission Instructions. Preproposal: A Brief Research Plan to Confirm its Alignment with the FUNDER’s Goals before Inviting a Full Proposal. Letter of Inquiry: A Researcher sends this Letter to a Funding Organization to ask if their Research Idea ALIGNS with the Funder’s Priorities and if there IS Alignment, the Researcher may be Invited to Submit a Full Proposal. 13 | P a g e  Letter of Intent (LOI): A PRELIMINARY Research Plan Expressing Intent to Submit a Full Proposal. It is Required WEEKS or MONTHS BEFORE the Full Proposal Deadline, and it Helps Funding Agencies Prepare for Proposal Reviews. Deliverable: The PRODUCT Required to Fulfill Contract Terms. Unsolicited Proposal: Is Open to Diverse Eligible Candidates and is Submitted in Response to an RFP. Solicited Proposal: Often Leading to a Contract Rather than a Grant, it is Submitted by Invitation of the Funder. Contract: Research Funding that Requires DELIVERING a Specific Product (Like a Commissioned Report) and which Final Payment MAY DEPEND on the Submission of a Satisfactory Deliverable. Budget: Should be Able to Cover ALL Essential Costs without being EXCESSIVE. Each Budget Line Item May Require an Explanation of its Necessity and a Description of HOW the Cost was Determined. Types of Costs Include Direct Costs, Allowable Costs, and Overhead/Indirect Costs. Direct Costs: Are Specific Monetary Expenses Associated with a Research Project. Examples include Salaries and Benefits, Data Collection Expenses, Dissemination Activities, etc. Allowable Costs: Are Expenses Approved for a Funded Grant or Contract. Nonmonetary Resources: These are Beyond Money and Materials, such as Individuals Contributing their Time, Expertise, and Connection. Examples: Participants, Data Access, Facility Use, Equipment Availability. No-Cost Extension: This Extends the Grant Closing Date WITHOUT Providing Additional Funds and Allows more Time to Spend Allocated Funds. “Use It or Lose It” Policy: Unspent Funds are Returned to the Agency at the end of the Grant Period. Closeout: Verifies that ALL Administrative Actions and Required Work for the Grant have been Completed by the Grantee. 14 | P a g e