Definitions From Chapters 1-5 PDF

Here are the definitions from chapters 1-5 found in the provided source: - **behavior genetics**: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior - **heredity**: the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring - **envi...

Here are the definitions from chapters 1-5 found in the provided source: - **behavior genetics**: the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior - **heredity**: the genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring - **environment**: every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us - **chromosomes**: threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes - **DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)**: a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes - **genes**: the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins - **genome**: the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes - **identical (monozygotic) twins**: develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms - **fraternal (dizygotic) twins**: develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary brothers and sisters, but they share a prenatal environment - **temperament**: a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity - **heritability**: the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied - **interaction**: the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity) - **molecular genetics**: the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes - **molecular behavior genetics**: the study of how the structure and function of genes interact with our environment to influence behavior - **epigenetics**: \"above\" or \"in addition to\" (epi) genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change - **evolutionary psychology**: the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection - **natural selection**: the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations - **mutation**: a random error in gene replication that leads to a change - **social script**: culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations - **culture**: the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next - **norm**: an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe "proper" behavior - **individualism**: giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications - **collectivism**: giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly - **sex**: in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define males, females, and intersex individuals. Sex refers to assigned sex at birth. - **gender**: in psychology, the socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women - **aggression**: any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally - **relational aggression**: an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing - **X chromosome**: the sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child - **Y chromosome**: the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child - **testosterone**: the most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty - **estrogens**: sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity - **puberty**: the period of sexual maturation, when a person becomes capable of reproducing - **primary sex characteristics**: the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible - **secondary sex characteristics**: nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair - **spermarche \[sper-MAR-key\]**: the first ejaculation - **menarche \[meh-NAR-key\]**: the first menstrual period - **role**: a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave - **gender role**: a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or for females - **sexual aggression**: any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be sexual harassment or sexual assault. - **gender identity**: our sense of being male, female, or some combination of the two - **social learning theory**: the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished - **gender typing**: the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role - **androgyny**: displaying both traditional masculine and feminine psychological characteristics - **transgender**: an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-designated sex - **developmental psychology**: a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span - **zygote**: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo - **embryo**: the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month - **fetus**: the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth - **teratogens**: (literally, "monster makers") agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm - **fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)**: physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features - **habituation**: decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner - **maturation**: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience - **cognition**: all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating - **schema**: a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information - **assimilation**: interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas - **accommodation**: adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information - **sensorimotor stage**: in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities - **object permanence**: the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived - **preoperational stage**: in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to about 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic - **conservation**: the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects - **egocentrism**: in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view - **concrete operational stage**: in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events - **formal operational stage**: in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts - **scaffold**: in Vygotsky's theory, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking - **theory of mind**: people's ideas about their own and others' mental states---about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict - **stranger anxiety**: the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age - **attachment**: an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to their caregiver and showing distress on separation - **critical period**: an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development - **imprinting**: the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life. - **basic trust**: according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers - **self-concept**: all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?" - **adolescence**: the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence - **puberty**: the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing - **identity**: our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles - **social identity**: the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships - **intimacy**: in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in young adulthood - **emerging adulthood**: a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults - **menopause**: the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines - **neurocognitive disorders (NCDs)**: acquired (not lifelong) disorders marked by cognitive deficits; often related to Alzheimer's disease, brain injury or disease, or substance abuse. In older adults, neurocognitive disorders were formerly called dementia - **Alzheimer's disease**: a neurocognitive disorder marked by neural plaques, often with an onset after age 80, and entailing a progressive decline in memory and other cognitive abilities - **social clock**: the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement - **sensation**: the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment - **sensory receptors**: sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli - **perception**: the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events - **bottom-up processing**: analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information - **top-down processing**: information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations - **transduction**: conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brain can interpret - **psychophysics**: the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them - **absolute threshold**: the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time - **signal detection theory**: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes that there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness - **subliminal**: below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness - **difference threshold**: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time. We experience the difference threshold as a just noticeable difference (jnd) - **Weber\'s law**: the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount) - **priming**: the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response - **sensory adaptation**: diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation - **perceptual set**: a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another - **wavelength**: the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of gamma rays to the long pulses of radio transmission - **hue**: the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth - **intensity**: the amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, which influences what we perceive as brightness or loudness. Intensity is determined by the wave's amplitude (height) - **retina**: the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information - **accommodation**: (1) in developmental psychology, adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information. (2) in sensation and perception, the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina - **rods**: retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond - **cones**: retinal receptors that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. Cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations - **optic nerve**: the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain - **blind spot**: the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there - **fovea**: the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster - **Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory**: the theory that the retina contains three different types of color receptors---one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue---which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color - **opponent-process theory**: the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green - **feature detectors**: nerve cells in the brain's visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement - **parallel processing**: processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision - **gestalt**: an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes - **figure-ground**: the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground) - **grouping**: the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups - **depth perception**: the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance - **visual cliff**: a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals - **binocular cue**: a depth cue, such as retinal disparity, that depends on the use of two eyes - **retinal disparity**: a binocular cue for perceiving depth. By comparing retinal images from the two eyes, the brain computes distance---the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object - **monocular cue**: a depth cue, such as interposition or linear perspective, available to either eye alone - **phi phenomenon**: an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession - **perceptual constancy**: perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent color, brightness, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change - **perceptual adaptation**: the ability to adjust to changed sensory input, including an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field - **consciousness**: our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment - **hypnosis**: a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur - **cognitive neuroscience**: the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language) - **selective attention**: focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus - **inattentional blindness**: failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere - **change blindness**: failing to notice changes in the environment; a form of inattentional blindness - **dual processing**: the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks - **blindsight**: a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it - **parallel processing**: processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions - **sequential processing**: processing one aspect of a problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems - **sleep**: a periodic, natural loss of consciousness---as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation (Adapted from Dement, 1999) - **circadian \[ser-KAY-dee-an\] rhythm**: our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle - **REM sleep**: rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active - **alpha waves**: the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state - **hallucinations**: false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus - **delta waves**: the large, slow brain waves associated with the deep sleep of N3 - **suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)**: a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the SCN causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness - **insomnia**: recurring problems in falling or staying asleep - **narcolepsy**: a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times - **sleep apnea**: a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings - **night terrors**: a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during N3 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered - **dream**: a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind. Dreams are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it - **manifest content**: according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content) - **latent content**: according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content) - **REM rebound**: the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep) - **psychoactive drug**: a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods - **substance use disorder**: a disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk - **tolerance**: the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect - **addiction**: a primary, chronic disease of brain reward, motivation, memory, and related circuitry. It is characterized by inability to consistently abstain, impairment in behavioral control, craving, diminished recognition of significant problems with one's behaviors and interpersonal relationships, and a dysfunctional emotional response - **withdrawal**: the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug or behavior - **depressants**: drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions - **alcohol use disorder**: (popularly known as alcoholism) alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use - **barbiturates**: drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment - **opiates**: opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety - **stimulants**: drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions - **amphetamines**: drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes - **nicotine**: a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco - **cocaine**: a powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant; produces temporarily increased alertness and euphoria - **methamphetamine**: a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels - **Ecstasy (MDMA)**: a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition - **hallucinogens**: psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input - **near-death experience**: an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations - **LSD**: a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide) - **THC**: the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations - **hindsight bias**: the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.) - **theory**: an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events - **hypothesis**: A testable prediction, often implied by a theory - **operational definition**: a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures - **replication**: repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced - **preregistration**: publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses - **meta-analysis**: a statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion - **case study**: a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles - **naturalistic observation**: a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation - **survey**: a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group - **random sample**: a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion - **population**: all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country's whole population.) - **correlation**: a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other - **correlation coefficient**: a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from −1.00 to +1.00) - **variable**: anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure - **scatterplot**: a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation) - **illusory correlation**: perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship - **regression toward the mean**: the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average - **experiment**: a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors - **experimental group**: in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable - **control group**: in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment - **random assignment**: assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups - **double-blind procedure**: an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies - **placebo \[pluh-SEE-bo\] effect**: experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent - **independent variable**: in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied - **confounding variable**: a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results - **dependent variable**: in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated - **informed consent**: giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate - **debriefing**: the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants - **mode**: the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution - **mean**: the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores - **median**: the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it - **range**: the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution - **standard deviation**: a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score - **normal curve**: (normal distribution) a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (about 68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes - **statistical significance**: a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance The source does not include any definitions from chapter 1-5 of \"Psychology\" by David G. Myers and C. Nathan DeWall.