Chemical Principles Textbook PDF

 Periodic T...

 Periodic Table of the Elements Noble Alkaline gases 1 earth metals Halogens 18 1A 8A 1 2 H 2 13 14 15 16 17 He 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Li Be B C N O F Ne 11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Na Mg Transition metals Al Si P S Cl Ar 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 Alkali metals Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe 55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 Cs Ba La* Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn 87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 Fr Ra Ac† Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 *Lanthanides Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu † 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 Actinides Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr Group numbers 1–18 represent the system recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Table of Atomic Masses* Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Atomic Element Symbol Number Mass Element Symbol Number Mass Element Symbol Number Mass Actinium Ac 89 § Germanium Ge 32 72.59 Potassium K 19 39.10 Aluminum Al 13 26.98 Gold Au 79 197.0 Praseodymium Pr 59 140.9 Americium Am 95 Hafnium Hf 72 178.5 Promethium Pm 61 Antimony Sb 51 121.8 Hassium Hs 108 Protactinium Pa 91 Argon Ar 18 39.95 Helium He 2 4.003 Radium Ra 88 226 Arsenic As 33 74.92 Holmium Ho 67 164.9 Radon Rn 86 Astatine At 85 Hydrogen H 1 1.008 Rhenium Re 75 186.2 Barium Ba 56 137.3 Indium In 49 114.8 Rhodium Rh 45 102.9 Berkelium Bk 97 Iodine I 53 126.9 Roentgenium Rg 111 Beryllium Be 4 9.012 Iridium Ir 77 192.2 Rubidium Rb 37 85.47 Bismuth Bi 83 209.0 Iron Fe 26 55.85 Ruthenium Ru 44 101.1 Bohrium Bh 107 Krypton Kr 36 83.80 Rutherfordium Rf 104 Boron B 5 10.81 Lanthanum La 57 138.9 Samarium Sm 62 150.4 Bromine Br 35 79.90 Lawrencium Lr 103 Scandium Sc 21 44.96 Cadmium Cd 48 112.4 Lead Pb 82 207.2 Seaborgium Sg 106 Calcium Ca 20 40.08 Livermorium Lv 116 Selenium Se 34 78.96 Californium Cf 98 Lithium Li 3 6.9419 Silicon Si 14 28.09 Carbon C 6 12.01 Lutetium Lu 71 175.0 Silver Ag 47 107.9 Cerium Ce 58 140.1 Magnesium Mg 12 24.31 Sodium Na 11 22.99 Cesium Cs 55 132.90 Manganese Mn 25 54.94 Strontium Sr 38 87.62 Chlorine Cl 17 35.45 Meitnerium Mt 109 Sulfur S 16 32.07 Chromium Cr 24 52.00 Mendelevium Md 101 Tantalum Ta 73 180.9 Cobalt Co 27 58.93 Mercury Hg 80 200.6 Technetium Tc 43 Copernicium Cn 112 Molybdenum Mo 42 95.94 Tellurium Te 52 127.6 Copper Cu 29 63.55 Neodymium Nd 60 144.2 Terbium Tb 65 158.9 Curium Cm 96 Neon Ne 10 20.18 Thallium Tl 81 204.4 Darmstadtium Ds 110 Neptunium Np 93 Thorium Th 90 232.0 Dubnium Db 105 Nickel Ni 28 58.69 Thulium Tm 69 168.9 Dysprosium Dy 66 162.5 Niobium Nb 41 92.91 Tin Sn 50 118.7 Einsteinium Es 99 Nitrogen N 7 14.01 Titanium Ti 22 47.88 Erbium Er 68 167.3 Nobelium No 102 Tungsten W 74 183.9 Europium Eu 63 152.0 Osmium Os 76 190.2 Uranium U 92 238.0 Fermium Fm 100 Oxygen O 8 16.00 Vanadium V 23 50.94 Flerovium Fl 114 Palladium Pd 46 106.4 Xenon Xe 54 131.3 Fluorine F 9 19.00 Phosphorus P 15 30.97 Ytterbium Yb 70 173.0 Francium Fr 87 Platinum Pt 78 195.1 Yttrium Y 39 88.91 Gadolinium Gd 64 157.3 Plutonium Pu 94 Zinc Zn 30 65.38 Gallium Ga 31 69.72 Polonium Po 84 Zirconium Zr 40 91.22 *The values given here are to four significant figures where possible.     §A value given in brackets denotes the mass of the longest-lived isotope. 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Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Chemical Principles 8th Edition Steven S. Zumdahl Donald J. DeCoste University of Illinois University of Illinois Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  This is an electronic version of the print textbook. 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To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents Learning to Think Like a Chemist xv About the Authors xxi 1 Chemists and Chemistry 1 1.1 Thinking Like a Chemist 3 1.2 A Real-World Chemistry Problem 3 Chemistry Explorers Alison Williams’s Focus: The Structure of Nucleic Acids 4 Chemistry Explorers Stephanie Burns: Chemist, Executive 5 1.3 The Scientific Method 7 Chemical Insights Critical Units! 9 1.4 Industrial Chemistry 10 Chemical Insights A Note-able Achievement 11 1.5 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Real-World Chemistry 12 Key Terms 14 For Review 14 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 15 2.1 The Early History of Chemistry 16 2.2 Fundamental Chemical Laws 17 2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 19 2.4 Cannizzaro’s Interpretation 21 Chemical Insights Seeing Atoms 22 2.5 Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom 24 Chemical Insights Marie Curie: Founder of Radioactivity 26 2.6 The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction 29 2.7 Molecules and Ions 30 2.8 An Introduction to the Periodic Table 34 2.9 Naming Simple Compounds 35 Chemical Insights Hassium Fits Right In 36 Chemical Insights Playing Tag 42 Key Terms 45 For Review 45 Discussion Questions and Exercises 46 iii Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  iv   Contents 3 Stoichiometry 47 3.1 Atomic Masses 48 Chemical Insights “Whair” Do You Live? 49 3.2 The Mole 51 3.3 Molar Mass 53 Chemical Insights Measuring the Masses of Large Molecules or Making Elephants Fly 55 3.4 Conceptual Problem Solving 55 3.5 Percent Composition of Compounds 57 3.6 Determining the Formula of a Compound 59 3.7 Chemical Equations 65 3.8 Balancing Chemical Equations 67 3.9 Stoichiometric Calculations: Amounts of Reactants and Products 69 3.10 Calculations Involving a Limiting Reactant 71 3.11 Solving a Complex Problem 78 Key Terms 82 For Review 82 Discussion Questions and Exercises 83 4 Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry 84 4.1 Water, the Common Solvent 85 4.2 The Nature of Aqueous Solutions: Strong and Weak Electrolytes 87 4.3 The Composition of Solutions 90 4.4 Types of Chemical Reactions 96 4.5 Precipitation Reactions 96 4.6 Describing Reactions in Solution 101 4.7 Selective Precipitation 102 Chemical Insights Chemical Analysis of Cockroaches 103 4.8 Stoichiometry of Precipitation Reactions 104 4.9 Acid–Base Reactions 107 4.10 Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 113 4.11 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 117 4.12 Simple Oxidation–Reduction Titrations 124 Key Terms 126 For Review 126 Discussion Questions and Exercises 127 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents   v 5 Gases 128 5.1 Early Experiments 129 5.2 The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro 130 5.3 The Ideal Gas Law 133 5.4 Gas Stoichiometry 137 5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 139 Chemical Insights The Chemistry of Air Bags 141 5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 143 Chemical Insights Separating Gases 144 5.7 Effusion and Diffusion 151 5.8 Collisions of Gas Particles with the Container Walls 154 5.9 Intermolecular Collisions 156 5.10 Real Gases 159 Chemistry Explorers Kenneth Suslick Practices Sound Chemistry 161 5.11 Characteristics of Several Real Gases 162 5.12 Chemistry in the Atmosphere 162 Chemical Insights The Importance of Oxygen 165 Key Terms 167 For Review 167 Discussion Questions and Exercises 168 6 Chemical Equilibrium 169 6.1 The Equilibrium Condition 171 6.2 The Equilibrium Constant 173 6.3 Equilibrium Expressions Involving Pressures 176 6.4 The Concept of Activity 178 6.5 Heterogeneous Equilibria 179 6.6 Applications of the Equilibrium Constant 180 6.7 Solving Equilibrium Problems 184 6.8 Le Châtelier’s Principle 188 6.9 Equilibria Involving Real Gases 194 Key Terms 195 For Review 195 Discussion Questions and Exercises 196 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  vi   Contents 7 Acids and Bases 197 7.1 The Nature of Acids and Bases 198 7.2 Acid Strength 200 7.3 The pH Scale 204 7.4 Calculating the pH of Strong Acid Solutions 205 7.5 Calculating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions 206 7.6 Bases 212 Chemical Insights Amines 216 7.7 Polyprotic Acids 217 7.8 Acid–Base Properties of Salts 225 7.9 Acid Solutions in Which Water Contributes to the H1 Concentration 232 7.10 Strong Acid Solutions in Which Water Contributes to the H1 Concentration 237 7.11 Strategy for Solving Acid–Base Problems: A Summary 237 Key Terms 238 For Review 238 Discussion Questions and Exercises 240a 8 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria 241 8.1 Solutions of Acids or Bases Containing a Common Ion 242 8.2 Buffered Solutions 244 8.3 Exact Treatment of Buffered Solutions 252 8.4 Buffer Capacity 254 8.5 Titrations and pH Curves 257 8.6 Acid–Base Indicators 270 8.7 Titration of Polyprotic Acids 275 8.8 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product 278 8.9 Precipitation and Qualitative Analysis 286 Chemistry Explorers Yi Lu Researches the Role of Metals in Biological Systems 290 8.10 Complex Ion Equilibria 291 Key Terms 297 For Review 297 Discussion Questions and Exercises 298 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents   vii 9 Energy, Enthalpy, and Thermochemistry 299 9.1 The Nature of Energy 300 Chemical Insights Bees Are Hot 303 9.2 Enthalpy 306 9.3 Thermodynamics of Ideal Gases 307 9.4 Calorimetry 314 9.5 Hess’s Law 320 Chemical Insights Firewalking: Magic or Science? 322 9.6 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 323 9.7 Present Sources of Energy 329 Chemical Insights Fracking: What Is It? 331 Chemical Insights Hiding Carbon Dioxide 333 9.8 New Energy Sources 335 Chemical Insights Geoengineering 336 Chemical Insights Farming the Wind 338 Key Terms 342 For Review 342 Discussion Questions and Exercises 343 10 Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy 344 10.1 Spontaneous Processes 345 10.2 The Isothermal Expansion and Compression of an Ideal Gas 353 10.3 The Definition of Entropy 359 Chemical Insights Entropy: An Organizing Force? 361 10.4 Entropy and Physical Changes 362 10.5 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 364 10.6 The Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity 365 10.7 Free Energy 368 10.8 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions 371 10.9 Free Energy and Chemical Reactions 374 10.10 The Dependence of Free Energy on Pressure 379 10.11 Free Energy and Equilibrium 382 10.12 Free Energy and Work 388 10.13 Reversible and Irreversible Processes: A Summary 390 10.14 Adiabatic Processes 391 Key Terms 395 For Review 395 Discussion Questions and Exercises 396 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  viii   Contents 11 Electrochemistry 397 11.1 Galvanic Cells 398 11.2 Standard Reduction Potentials 401 11.3 Cell Potential, Electrical Work, and Free Energy 406 11.4 Dependence of the Cell Potential on Concentration 409 Chemical Insights Electrochemical Window Shades 416 11.5 Batteries 417 Chemical Insights Fuel Cells—Portable Energy 420 11.6 Corrosion 421 Chemical Insights Refurbishing the Lady 422 11.7 Electrolysis 425 Chemical Insights The Chemistry of Sunken Treasure 428 11.8 Commercial Electrolytic Processes 429 Key Terms 434 For Review 434 Discussion Questions and Exercises 435 12 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory 436 12.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 437 Chemical Insights New-Wave Sunscreens 439 12.2 The Nature of Matter 440 12.3 The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen 445 12.4 The Bohr Model 446 Chemical Insights Fireworks 450 12.5 The Quantum Mechanical Description of the Atom 452 Chemical Insights Electrons as Waves 454 12.6 The Particle in a Box 455 12.7 The Wave Equation for the Hydrogen Atom 461 Chemical Insights 0.035 Femtometer Is a Big Deal 462 12.8 The Physical Meaning of a Wave Function 464 12.9 The Characteristics of Hydrogen Orbitals 465 12.10 Electron Spin and the Pauli Principle 470 12.11 Polyelectronic Atoms 470 12.12 The History of the Periodic Table 472 12.13 The Aufbau Principle and the Periodic Table 475 Chemical Insights The Chemistry of Copernicium 476 12.14 Further Development of the Polyelectronic Model 481 12.15 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 484 Chemical Insights Why Is Mercury a Liquid? 488 12.16 The Properties of a Group: The Alkali Metals 492 Chemical Insights Lithium: Behavior Medicine 494 Key Terms 496 For Review 496 Discussion Questions and Exercises 497 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents   ix 13 Bonding: General Concepts 498 13.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 499 Chemical Insights No Lead Pencils 502 13.2 Electronegativity 503 13.3 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments 505 13.4 Ions: Electron Configurations and Sizes 509 13.5 Formation of Binary Ionic Compounds 512 13.6 Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds 516 13.7 The Covalent Chemical Bond: A Model 517 13.8 Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions 521 13.9 The Localized Electron Bonding Model 524 13.10 Lewis Structures 524 13.11 Resonance 529 13.12 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 530 13.13 Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model 540 Chemical Insights Chemical Structure and Communication: Semiochemicals 548 Chemical Insights Smelling and Tasting Electronically 550 Key Terms 553 For Review 553 Discussion Questions and Exercises 554 14 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals 555 14.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model 556 14.2 The Molecular Orbital Model 568 14.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 572 14.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 578 14.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models 579 Chemical Insights The Always Interesting NO 581 14.6 Orbitals: Human Inventions 582 14.7 Molecular Spectroscopy: An Introduction 584 14.8 Electronic Spectroscopy 585 14.9 Vibrational Spectroscopy 587 14.10 Rotational Spectroscopy 590 14.11 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 593 Chemical Insights NMR and Oenology 596 Key Terms 598 For Review 598 Discussion Questions and Exercises 599 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  x   Contents 15 Chemical Kinetics 600 15.1 Reaction Rates 601 Chemical Insights Femtochemistry 604 15.2 Rate Laws: An Introduction 605 15.3 Determining the Form of the Rate Law 607 15.4 The Integrated Rate Law 611 15.5 Rate Laws: A Summary 620 15.6 Reaction Mechanisms 622 Chemical Insights Ultracold Reactions 623 Chemical Insights Seeing Reaction Mechanisms 626 15.7 The Steady-State Approximation 628 15.8 A Model for Chemical Kinetics 631 15.9 Catalysis 636 Chemical Insights TiO2—One of Nature’s Most Versatile Materials 637 Chemical Insights Enzymes: Nature’s Catalysts 640 Chemical Insights Hot, New Enzymes 643 Key Terms 645 For Review 645 Discussion Questions and Exercises 647 16 Liquids and Solids 648 16.1 Intermolecular Forces 650 16.2 The Liquid State 652 Chemical Insights Getting a Grip 653 Chemical Insights Smart Fluids 655 16.3 An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids 656 Chemical Insights Conch Clues 658 Chemistry Explorers Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin: Pioneering Crystallographer 660 16.4 Structure and Bonding in Metals 662 Chemical Insights Closest Packing of M & Ms 664 Chemical Insights Seething Surfaces 665 16.5 Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids 670 Chemical Insights Graphene—Miracle Substance? 672 Chemical Insights Superconductivity 674 Chemical Insights Gorilla Glass 676 Chemical Insights Gallium Arsenide Lasers 678 16.6 Molecular Solids 680 16.7 Ionic Solids 681 16.8 Structures of Actual Ionic Solids 685 16.9 Lattice Defects 686 16.10 Vapor Pressure and Changes of State 687 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents   xi 16.11 Phase Diagrams 694 Chemical Insights Making Diamonds at Low Pressures: Fooling Mother Nature 696 16.12 Nanotechnology 699 Chemical Insights Smaller Can Be Better 700 Chemical Insights Nanogenerators: Power from Motion 701 Key Terms 703 For Review 703 Discussion Questions and Exercises 704a 17 Properties of Solutions 705 17.1 Solution Composition 706 17.2 The Thermodynamics of Solution Formation 707 Chemical Insights Miracle Solvents 710 17.3 Factors Affecting Solubility 711 Chemical Insights Ionic Liquids? 715 Chemical Insights The Lake Nyos Tragedy 716 17.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions 716 17.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 721 17.6 Osmotic Pressure 724 17.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 728 17.8 Colloids 730 Chemical Insights Organisms and Ice Formation 731 Key Terms 732 For Review 732 Discussion Questions and Exercises 733 18 The Representative Elements 734 18.1 A Survey of the Representative Elements 735 18.2 The Group 1A Metals 739 18.3 The Chemistry of Hydrogen 741 18.4 The Group 2A Elements 743 18.5 The Group 3A Elements 745 18.6 The Group 4A Elements 747 Chemical Insights Beethoven: Hair Is the Story 748 18.7 The Group 5A Elements 749 18.8 The Chemistry of Nitrogen 750 Chemical Insights An Explosive Discovery 753 Chemical Insights Nitrous Oxide: Laughing Gas That Propels Whipped Cream and Cars 757 18.9 The Chemistry of Phosphorus 758 18.10 The Group 6A Elements 760 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  xii   Contents 18.11 The Chemistry of Oxygen 761 18.12 The Chemistry of Sulfur 763 18.13 The Group 7A Elements 765 18.14 The Group 8A Elements 769 Chemical Insights Automatic Sunglasses 770 Key Terms 772 For Review 772 Exercises 774 19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry 775 19.1 The Transition Metals: A Survey 776 Chemical Insights The Lanthanides: Critical Elements 777 19.2 The First-Row Transition Metals 782 Chemical Insights Titanium Makes Great Bicycles 784 19.3 Coordination Compounds 788 19.4 Isomerism 792 Chemical Insights Alfred Werner: Coordination Chemist 795 Chemical Insights The Importance of Being cis 796 Chemical Insights Chirality: Why Is It Important? 798 19.5 Bonding in Complex Ions: The Localized Electron Model 799 19.6 The Crystal Field Model 800 19.7 The Molecular Orbital Model 806 Chemical Insights Transition Metal Ions Lend Color to Gems 808 19.8 The Biological Importance of Coordination Complexes 809 Key Terms 813 For Review 813 Discussion Questions and Exercises 814 20 The Nucleus: A Chemist’s View 815 20.1 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay 816 Chemical Insights Does Antimatter Matter? 820 20.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 820 Chemical Insights Stellar Nucleosynthesis 822 20.3 Nuclear Transformations 824 20.4 Detection and Uses of Radioactivity 826 20.5 Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus 830 20.6 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 833 Chemical Insights Nuclear Physics: An Introduction 837 20.7 Effects of Radiation 838 Key Terms 840 For Review 840 Exercises 840a Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents   xiii 21 Organic and Biochemical Molecules 841 21.1 Alkanes: Saturated Hydrocarbons 842 Chemical Insights Chemistry in the Garden 843 21.2 Alkenes and Alkynes 851 21.3 Aromatic Hydrocarbons 853 21.4 Hydrocarbon Derivatives 855 21.5 Polymers 862 Chemical Insights Wallace Hume Carothers 868 Chemical Insights Heal Thyself 870 21.6 Natural Polymers 871 Chemical Insights Tanning in the Shade 878 Key Terms 887 For Review 887 Exercises 888 Appendix 1 Mathematical Procedures A1 A1.1 Exponential Notation A1 A1.2 Logarithms A3 A1.3 Graphing Functions A4 A1.4 Solving Quadratic Equations A5 A1.5 Uncertainties in Measurements A7 A1.6 Significant Figures A12 Appendix 2 Units of Measurement and Conversions Among Units A14 A2.1 Measurements A14 A2.2 Unit Conversions A15 Appendix 3 Spectral Analysis A16 Appendix 4 Selected Thermodynamic Data A19 Appendix 5 Equilibrium Constants and Reduction Potentials A22 Appendix 6 Deriving the Integrated Rate Laws A25 A6.1 First-Order Rate Laws A25 A6.2 Second-Order Rate Laws A26 A6.3 Zero-Order Rate Laws A26 Glossary A27 Answers to Selected Exercises A40 Index A79 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. 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Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Learning to Think Like a Chemist Chemistry is a fascinating and important subject that is challenging to teach and even more challenging to learn. Making this complex subject accessible to students without distortion is the challenge of the chemical educator, espe- cially at the introductory level. Chemical Principles, Eighth Edition, provides a rigorous but understandable introduction to chemistry. It emphasizes con- ceptual understanding, the importance of models, and thoughtful problem solving. Chemical Principles is based on our experiences at the University of Illi- nois teaching an accelerated general chemistry course for chemical sciences majors and other students who require a rigorous introductory course. These students typically have excellent credentials and a genuine aptitude for chem- istry but only limited understanding of the fundamental concepts of chemistry. Although they may know how to solve stoichiometry and gas problems when they arrive in our courses, these students typically lack a thorough apprecia- tion for the chemical principles that underlie these applications. This is not because they had inadequate preparation in high school; instead, we believe it results from the nature of chemistry itself—a subject that requires several passes before real mastery can take place. Our mission in writing this text was to produce a book that does not as- sume that students already know how to think like chemists. These students will eventually do complicated and rigorous thinking, but they must be brought to that point gradually. Thus this book covers the advanced topics (in gases, atomic theory, thermodynamics, and so on) that one expects in a course for chemical sciences majors, but it starts with the fundamentals and then builds to the level required for more complete understanding. Chemistry is not the result of an inspired vision. It is the product of countless observations and many attempts, using logic and trial and error, to account for these observa- tions. In this book we develop key chemical concepts in the same way—to show the observations first and then discuss the models that have been con- structed to explain the observed behavior. We hope students will practice “thinking like a chemist” by carefully studying the observations to see if they can follow the thought process, rather than just jumping ahead to the equation or model that will follow. In Chemical Principles, Eighth Edition, we take advantage of the excellent math skills that these students typically possess. As a result, there are fewer worked-out examples than would be found in most mainstream books. The end-of-chapter problems cover a wide range—from drill exercises to difficult problems, some of which would challenge the average senior chemistry major. Thus instructors can tailor the problem assignments to the level appropriate for their students. This text maintains a student-friendly approach without being patroniz- ing. In addition, to demonstrate the importance of chemistry in real life, we have incorporated throughout the book a number of applications and recent advances in essay form. xv Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  xvi    Learning to Think Like a Chemist New to This Edition We continue to be pleased that the previous editions of the text have been well received. In response to comments from users, however, we have made some significant changes for the eighth edition. n We have expanded Section 3.4 “Conceptual Problem Solving” to increase the emphasis on the importance of having students think their way through a problem. n We have increased the discussion of how to use our problem-solving approach in the examples in Chapters 3 through 5 to model for the students the types of questions they should be asking and answering when solving problems. n All examples have been checked and revised as needed, with titles being added. n In the new Section 3.11, “Solving a Complex Problem,” we discuss at length a complex problem (that is, one which requires the students to utilize knowledge and understanding of many concepts). We also consider an alter- native solution to show students that there is always more than one method to solve a complex problem. n A more rigorous discussion of the mathematics involved in relating the number of microstates to the concept of entropy is included in Section 10.1. n Critical Thinking questions have been added throughout the text to empha- size the importance of conceptual learning. n Several Chemical Insights and Chemistry Explorers features have been added or revised. n Calculus-based derivations of integrated rate laws for zero-, first-, and ­second-order reactions have been added in Appendix 6. n New end-of-chapter questions and problems have been added throughout the text. n ChemWork problems have been added to the end-of-chapter problems throughout the text. These problems test the students’ understanding of core concepts from each chapter. Students who solve a particular problem with no assistance can proceed directly to the answer. However, students who need help can get assistance through a series of online hints. The online procedure for assisting students is modeled after the way a teacher would help with homework problems in his or her office. The hints are usually in the form of interactive questions that guide students through the problem- solving process. Students cannot receive the correct answer from the com- puter; rather, it encourages students to continue working through the hints to arrive at the answer. ChemWork problems in the text can be worked us- ing the online system or as pencil-and-paper problems. n All end-of-chapter questions and problems have been checked, rewritten, and updated as needed to comply with OWL v.2. n The art program has been modified and updated as needed. Organization The early chapters in this book deal with chemical reactions. Stoichiometry is covered in Chapters 3 and 4, with special emphasis on reactions in aqueous solutions. The properties of gases are treated in Chapter 5, followed by cover- age of gas phase equilibria in Chapter 6. Acid–base equilibria are covered in Chapter 7, and Chapter 8 deals with additional aqueous equilibria. Thermo- dynamics is covered in two chapters: Chapter 9 deals with thermochemistry and the first law of thermodynamics; Chapter 10 treats the topics associated with the second law of thermodynamics. The discussion of electrochemistry follows in Chapter 11. Atomic theory and quantum mechanics are covered in Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Learning to Think Like a Chemist    xvii Chapter 12, followed by two chapters on chemical bonding and modern spec- troscopy (Chapters 13 and 14). Chemical kinetics is discussed in Chapter 15, followed by coverage of solids and liquids in Chapter 16 and the physical properties of solutions in Chapter 17. A systematic treatment of the descriptive chemistry of the representative elements is given in Chapter 18 and of the transition metals in Chapter 19. Chapter 20 covers topics in nuclear chemistry, and Chapter 21 provides an introduction to organic chemistry and to the most important biomolecules. Flexibility of Topic Order We recognize that the order of the chapters in this text may not fit the order of the topics in your course. Therefore, we have tried to make the order as flexible as possible. In the courses that we have taught using the text, we have successfully used it in a very different order from the one the text follows. We would encourage you to use it in whatever order that serves your purposes. Instructors have several options for arranging the material to comple- ment their syllabi. For example, the section on gas phase and aqueous equi- libria (Chapters 6–8) could be moved to any point later in the course. The chapters on thermodynamics can be separated: Chapter 9 can be used early in the course with Chapter 10 later. In addition, the chapters on atomic theory and bonding (Chapters 12–14) can be used near the beginning of the course. In summary, an instructor who wants to cover atomic theory early and equilibrium later might prefer the following order of chapters: 1–5, 9, Two approaches for teaching atomic theory earlier and equilibrium later in the course Approach 1 Approach 2 Chapter 1 Chemists and Chemistry Chapter 1 Chemists and Chemistry Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Chapter 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Chapter 3 Stoichiometry Chapter 3 Stoichiometry Chapter 4 Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Chapter 4 Types of Chemical Reactions and Solution Stoichiometry Stoichiometry Chapter 5 Gases Chapter 5 Gases Chapter 9 Energy, Enthalpy, and Thermochemistry Chapter 9 Energy, Enthalpy, and Thermochemistry Chapter 12 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory Chapter 12 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Theory Chapter 13 Bonding: General Concepts Chapter 13 Bonding: General Concepts Chapter 14 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals Chapter 14 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals Chapter 10 Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy Chapter 6 Chemical Equilibrium Chapter 11 Electrochemistry Chapter 7 Acids and Bases Chapter 6 Chemical Equilibrium Chapter 8 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria Chapter 7 Acids and Bases Chapter 10 Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy Chapter 8 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria Chapter 11 Electrochemistry Chapter 15 Chemical Kinetics Chapter 15 Chemical Kinetics Chapter 16 Liquids and Solids Chapter 16 Liquids and Solids Chapter 17 Properties of Solutions Chapter 17 Properties of Solutions Chapter 18 The Representative Elements Chapter 18 The Representative Elements Chapter 19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chapter 19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry Chemistry Chapter 20 The Nucleus: A Chemist’s View Chapter 20 The Nucleus: A Chemist’s View Chapter 21 Organic and Biochemical Molecules Chapter 21 Organic and Biochemical Molecules Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  xviii    Learning to Think Like a Chemist 12, 13, 14, 10, 11, 6, 7, 8, 15–21. An alternative order might be: 1–5, 9, 12, 13, 14, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 15–21. The point is that the chapters on atomic theory and bonding (12–14), thermodynamics (9, 10), and equilibrium (6, 7, 8) can be moved around quite easily. In addition, the kinetics chapter (Chapter 15) can be covered at any time after bonding. It is also possible to use Chapter 20 (on ­nuclear chemistry) much earlier—after Chapter 12, for example—if desired. Mathematical Level This text assumes a solid background in algebra. All of the mathematical op- erations required are described in Appendix One or are illustrated in worked-