Midterm 2: Social Sciences PDF

Midterm #2 - End Morality of violence Equality → Retaliation for past transgressions; eye for an eye. Proportionality → If benefits outweigh costs; if someone is threatening serious harm, it's morally justifiable to use enough for...

Midterm #2 - End Morality of violence Equality → Retaliation for past transgressions; eye for an eye. Proportionality → If benefits outweigh costs; if someone is threatening serious harm, it's morally justifiable to use enough force to stop them. Appropriate to situation. Animal research → more human lives saved when experimenting on animals. Moral self licensing Doing one moral thing makes you think of yourself as a moral person. Therefore, when you do something immoral, you brush it off because you've labelled yourself as a moral person. Current virtuous action cancels out bad behaviour. People give less money to charity when they have done so in the past: You've already been “moral enough” Studies claim that if you are asked to reflect and think of yourself as moral or immoral, if you choose immoral You feel more compelled to give to charity as a way of “cleansing” Compensating for past behaviour. Chapter 9 : Characterizing Relationships Challenges in relationship research Self selection → you can't randomly assign someone to a relationship. Forces researchers to use longitudinal methods. Midterm #2 - End 1  Examine dynamics in preexisting relationships, unfolding over time. Biological need for belonging; explained HUMANS HAVE A BIOLOGICAL NEED TO BELONG. Facilitates reproducing, raising offspring and helping individuals survive. Hunting and gathering, defence against predators. Evidence → baby monkey cloth mother v. wire mother experiment. Preferred the cloth mother although she didn't provide nourishment. Demonstrated our need to belong → baby monkey related and felt more connected to cloth mother. Higher mortality rates among unmarried and widowed people. Same with crime rates. Married people report better physical and psychological health than unmarried people. Loneliness Not feeling that your level of desired social connection is met. Associated w/ negative health effects. The different ways of relating to each other Communal relationships → individuals feel a sense of responsibility for each other, expected to be long term → give and take is need based → family members. Exchange relationships → Trade based, often short term → sales people, company workers. Social Exchange Theory of relationships Midterm #2 - End 2  Humans just want to maximize their own satisfaction. They seek out rewards in their interactions; willing to pay certain costs to obtain those rewards. Often people want relationships in which rewards exceed costs. Evaluation of costs and rewards in interpersonal relationships Social exchange theory explains how people rely on certain standards to evaluate the rewards and costs of different relationships. Comparison level → people's expectations about what they should be getting out of a relationship. Comparison level for alternatives → the outcomes people think they could get out of alternative relationships. Equity theory → People want fairness in their relationships; equality in ratio of costs to rewards for both parties. Attachment styles and studies Over time, children develop working models of themselves → based on their caregiver's availability and responsiveness. Shape our relationships for the rest of our lives. Attachment patterns are classified by how infants responded to separations and reunions with caregivers → in lab and at home. Bowlby study → put infants in a foreign room → measured their reactions upon being separated and reunited with caregivers. Securely attached infants were comfortable being separated → glad to be reunited. Avoidant infants were distressed in foreign room → unable to be comforted, least inclined to seek out caregiver, sometimes even rejected caregiver when reunited. Midterm #2 - End 3  Attachment types or dimensions Hazan and Shaver Gave Bowlby's ideas more dimension → related to adults Secure, avoidant and anxious-ambivalent Evolved into “styles” rather than patterns. Anxious dimension → how much fear a person feels about rejection and abandonment. Avoidant dimension → how much a person finds dependence in relationships aversive. Being low in both dimensions = secure attachment. The persistence of attachment styles The attachments you form as a child shape how you relate as an adult to your close relationships. Longitudinal studies report that conflict at home in early adulthood was associated with individuals self reports of being avoidance, late in adulthood. Why do these attachment styles persist? Creation of a self-fulfilling prophecy. Ie. avoidantly attached people often do not seek support from a partner because of their negative expectations about others' availability, As a result, the partner doesn't provide support, thereby confirming and maintaining those expectations. Attachment styles can change → people have multiple working models of attachment. Midterm #2 - End 4  Attachment styles can be primed or activated depending on relationship. Cultures also predict attachment styles. Some cultures are more interdependent → people don't move away often from family. Attraction 1. Proximity Functional distance → the influence of the layout of a physical space that encourages or discourages contact between people. NYC housing projects example → people living in close proximity got closer. 2. Frequency Mere exposure effect → the more exposed you are to something, the more you like that thing. Rat experiment on Schoenberg and Mozart music. Being exposed to one artist more made rats favour that artist. Why does being exposed to a stimulus more often make you favour it? Easier to cognitively process → more “fluent” Fluency = satisfying Zajonc explanation → safe v. unsafe stimuli → familiar = safe. Similarity We are drawn to those who are similar to us. In terms of social class, background, religion, education and personality. Midterm #2 - End 5  This makes us more likely to encounter each other → mere exposure effect. Similarity leads to CONSENSUAL VALIDATION → validation of individual values and attitudes. Ie. You're a Trump supporter and you're dating someone who is also a Trump supporter → you affirm each others beliefs. When we think someone is similar to us → we see them more highly → enhancing attraction. When we focus on what we have in common with people, we feel less hostile towards them Example with political dissimilarity. Why opposites attract → COMPLEMENTARITY. We are attracted to people who excel in the domains we are lacking in. Status exchange hypothesis → romantic attraction increases when individuals complement each other in domains where the other is lacking. Physical attractiveness Attractive people reap many benefits that unattractive people don't → less time in jail, higher salaries. Halo effect → The common belief that attractive people have a lot more positive qualities than they actually do. Studies → attractive women rated warmer 5-minute blind phone call → rated the attractive people more skilled and sociable. Biology and attraction → beauty = good health, reproductive fitness (facial symmetry = healthier, resistance to disease). Average face → assumption of good health. Midterm #2 - End 6  Gender differences in mate preference Investment → Women have to invest more (they carry the fetus). Men are less selective. Assets → Women look for security and resources (material, physical strength, status) Leads women to often search for older partners. Men look for beauty and youthfulness. Early & Wood; Men → big and strong, not burdened by pregnancy like women. This has allowed men to have disproportionate control over material resources. Women = more vulnerable → concerned with having material needs satisfied. This is why women are drawn to partners who can fulfill their material needs. If women held more positions of power in the workplace, there would be less pressure on them to find a mate that can provide resources. Romantic relationships 1. Companionate love → friends and family 2. Compassionate love → communal relationships, uplifting. 3. Romantic love → sexual and emotional desire → development of intimacy. Investment Model of Commitment / 3 determinants of commitment Absence or presence of alternative partners. Satisfaction → rewards v. costs Midterm #2 - End 7  Investments in the relationship → more likely to stay if very invested. THESE THREE CATEGORIES ARE CONNECTED with perceived partner responsiveness. High responsiveness → high satisfaction Low responsiveness → low satisfaction Commitment promotes longevity Predictors of dissatisfaction and divorce 1. Personality → low self esteem, neurotic, sensitive to rejection → more likely to divorce 2. Socioeconomic background → low socio-economic background → more likely to divorce More likely to experience financial difficulties and inability to find a stable job. Priority on self protection, rather than connection with partner. 3. Age → getting married younger leads more often to divorce, not ready for long-term. The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse Gottman and Levenson studied 79 couples over the years and came up with the four behaviours which are most harmful to a relationship. 1. Criticism 2. Stonewalling 3. Defensiveness 4. Contempt (condescension) Do couples separate because they expressed one of these four behaviours or because the relationship was already going through it? Midterm #2 - End 8  Correlation between behaviours of the Four Horsemen and decreased physical health Musculoskeletal health specifically. Construal tendencies and their role romantic relationships Negative construal tends to weaken romantic bonds → Blame Dissatisfied partners often cast their partners in a negative light → construal. When their partner does something nice → don't attribute it to their partner's character. Satisfied partners do the opposite → attribute it to their partner's character. Creating stronger bonds 1. Sharing what is good in your life with your partner → job success, social success, etc. a. Allows partners to actively listen to each other, comment on each others' successes. b. More of a Western habit → other cultures don't want their partners to feel envious (Korea) 2. Playfulness between partners a. Study where partners engaged in a fun task together → reported higher marital satisfaction after the task was completed. 3. Idealizing your partner a. Partners being idealized and partners doing the idealizing are both happier. b. Happy partners justify their partners lack of success i. “He lost his job because his mother just died” Love and the brain Midterm #2 - End 9  Romantic love deactivates the amygdala → perception of fear. Blinds your inability to see danger or red flags in a new partner. Lecture 17 Sociometer hypothesis Leary Self esteem is a gauge of the degree that we feel our needs are being met. Feeling included → high self esteem Feeling excluded → low self esteem Relationship illusions If we see ourselves positively, we are more likely to see our partners positively Not feeling confident that our partner sees us positively → leads to dependence. Positive bias → seeing your positive as better than they actually are. Idealization = greater relationship satisfaction for both partners. Buffering hypothesis → illusions help partners look past negative events in a relationship Reflected appraisal hypothesis → individuals come to see themselves through their partners' eyes. Linking fault with virtue → “he lied to me because he loves me”. Swann and the marriage shift → illusions are typical early in a relationship, later becomes self-verification. Contamination hypothesis Low self esteem projects onto partners. Midterm #2 - End 10  Individuals begin to assume that partners share the disappointment that they have in themselves. So they find fault in their partner before their partner can reject them. Avoidant vibes. Compensation hypothesis Relationship and partner = resource High self esteem people compensate for self doubts by embellishing interpersonal strengths. Chapter 5 Emotions 1. The product of construals of events. Environmental factors can also affect construals. 2. Emotions are associated with bodily and behavioural response → William James Heart palpitations, sweatiness, facial expression change, vocalizations, etc. 3. Emotions = specific, brief in contrast to moods. 4. Help us interpret our surrounding circumstances 5. Motivate and guide our actions Evolutionary and constructivist approaches to emotions 1. Evolutionary → emotions = adaptive reactions to survival-related threats and opportunities. Implies that emotions = universal across cultures. Midterm #2 - End 11  Darwin → certain facial expressions were beneficial on our evolutionary past → generated three hypotheses about the universality about emotional expression. 1. Humans all use the same 30-40 facial muscles to express emotion. Must be culturally universal. Pride and shame → Burkina Faso remote tribe → identified displays of pride from pics. Study by Ekman, Izard and Friesen on the universality of emotion across cultures Even the Fore people in Papua New Guinea (who had never been exposed to Westerners) → correctly identified 6 facial expressions displayed by Westerners. Findings demonstrated that different cultures universally agree on labelling emotions. 2. Bc of humans shared evolutionary past w other primates → our emotional expression should resemble that of other species Chimps demonstrating similar mannerisms to us → whimper when sad. Displays of embarrassment → cross-species similarities → appeasement purposes. 3. Blind individuals show the same facial expressions as sighted people do. Facial expressions must be encoded by evolutionary processes. Olympic athletes study → displaying pride and shame. 2. Constructivist → emphasizes the role that culture plays in emotions across various cultures. Culture affects construal → shaped by the values, socialization practices and institutions that vary across cultures. Inuits not getting mad when visiting Europeans stole their canoes. Culture and focal emotions Midterm #2 - End 12  Some cultures are defined by specific emotions Canada → kindness. USA → surprise and spontaneity. Mexico → love. Brazil → flirt. This highlights that cultures differ in their FOCAL EMOTIONS. Emotions experienced with greater intensity, common in the everyday lives of that society. Emotions conveying modesty and shame → common in interdependent cultures Focal emotions of cultures are also expressed in behaviour → Olympic athletes. Emotions become focal because of the affect valuation theory; Emotions promoting important cultural ideals are valued, tend to play a more prominent role in the social lives of individuals. USA values excitement → Americans known to enjoy risky behaviour. Emotional regulation → three strategies Emotional regulation → modification of emotions to fit into a certain context. 1. Reappraise → Rethinking why you feel a certain way. 2. Accept → Accepting that our emotions are fleeting, current emotional circumstance. 3. Suppress → Minimizing outward signs of our emotions. Social Functional Theory Emotions aid people to form, maintain and negotiate the relationships most meaningful to them. Midterm #2 - End 13  Works by shifting out construal of the social context and emphasizing certain actions. Edward Muybridge study → damage to his brain shifted the way he felt about his close relationships, and acted towards others. Damaged orbitofrontal cortex Damage to this area causes individuals to lose their ability to rely on certain emotions to fit the social context. Deteriorated social relationships. Emotions coordinate our interactions with others → to strengthen bonds. Understanding the emotions of others guides our social actions. Muybridge struggled with commitment after the accident Emotions help solve problems of commitment. Neurochemistry of commitment OXYTOCIN Strengthens commitment and bonding → released by hypothalamus. Nasal spray study → oxytocin promotes empathy. Touch and collaboration Basketball teams touching each other example → players played better when they were touched during the game. The right kind of touch can prompt individuals to act collaboratively. Touch enables interactions between individuals. Finding group identity through emotion Midterm #2 - End 14  After his brain trauma → Muybridge lost touch with his community. Feelings of collective pride (awe) make us feel connected At a concert, political rally, etc. Brief experiences of awe strengthen our sense of belonging with others. People feeling awe are more likely to define themselves in terms of collective traits I am a Zionist. More likely to report feeling embedded in stronger, more interconnected social networks Anger = dominance → can lead to gain of power Envy = good or bad → malicious v. benign envy. Emotions and their influence on reasoning Research has shown that positive emotions induce creativity and flexible reasoning. Good moods make people more open minded. Isen study on word associations → happy people (grass) → (fresh, clean) Sad people → produced more common responses. Good moods allow people to be open minded and consider others' feelings. Fredrickson's broaden and build hypothesis → Negative emotions narrow our attention. Positive emotions broaden our patterns of thinking. People feeling positive emotions → more likely to rate themselves similar to the out-group. Midterm #2 - End 15  Lecture 18 Distress and Coping Responses to War 140 Israeli students assessed two weeks after the Gulf War. Residence area = dangerous What is it like living in a dangerous area like that? Ambivalents → more distress, emotion focus Secure → support seeking Avoidants → more hostile, distancing Attachment Threat Activation System 1. Is there a threat present? Threat should activate the attachment. 2. Is there an attachment I CAN RELY ON FOR SUPPORT? Yes → threat = reduced No → self-reliance, distancing Maybe → looks for signs of acceptance → reflecting on who you can count on. Attachment style determines answers to these questions. Yes → securely attached No → avoidant Maybe → Anxious-ambivalent Shift in attachment styles Attachment styles can sometimes change → 30% do. Anxiously attached most likely to change. Midterm #2 - End 16  Attachment style also varies depending on the relationship → mom v. boyfriend Priming a stress buffer Women more likely to act calmly when primed with a stress buffer (a support figure). Model for New Relationship Person qualities → big five Transference from other relationships → exemplars Data from actual interactions → does this person make you feel secure, happy, etc. Cultural variations in happiness Happiness is found in various ways, depending on the culture; For Americans → personal achievement Other cultures → harmonious relationships Measuring happiness 2 components Life satisfaction Emotional well being Among 40 cultures → studies have shown that people enjoy the happiest years after 50. In what countries are people happiest? Countries with strong social safety nets Midterm #2 - End 17  Sweden, Norway, Finland Benefits of happiness Facilitates productivity Facilitates interpersonal relationships Improves wellbeing → shown to increase life expectancy. Knowing what makes us happy Can we predict what will make us happy? Yes and no. Affective forecasting → the process of predicting how we will feel in the future. Going into a tough field, thinking it will increase our chances of being rich → happy. Gilbert and Wilson → study with luckies and leftovers (never broken up, broken up) People tend to overestimate how much a romantic breakup will diminish their life satisfaction down the line. Biases that interfere with our ability to predict future happiness: 1. Immune neglect → the tendency to ignore our ability to respond productively to stress and other potential sources of unhappiness. We fail to acknowledge how resilient we are to stress. 2. Focalism → Focusing too much on the central (focal) elements of significant events. Failing to consider how other aspects of our life will influence us. Ie. You land your dream job. You think you will always be happy. In reality, other shit happens → your health declines. Midterm #2 - End 18  3. Duration neglect → when people fail to consider the duration of an experience, and only focus on its peak and its end. Most reliable contributors to happiness 1. Being with other people → religious engagement, community 2. Money → makes life less stressful, spending on experiences leads to greater happiness. 3. Meditation → makes people more calm 4. Practicing gratitude 5. Giving instead of receiving → altruism brings people joy 6. Cultivating experiences that lead to awe → watching inspiring movies, going to concerts, being in nature. 2 Chapter 12 Todd Ashker case and effects of social isolation Convicted murderer, imprisoned in solitary confinement at Pelican Bay. Suffered suicidal ideation, hallucinations, and symptoms of a nervous breakdown. Despite these conditions, managed to connect with fellow inmates in the same conditions as him → calling out from the exercise room. Efforts to connect resulted in a state-wide hunger strike among prison inmates. Protest conditions of solitary confinement → deep psychological harm. Argument → solitary confinement violates moral and legal standards by ignoring human biological need for connection. Midterm #2 - End 19  Nature and purpose of group living Ashker case highlights a fundamental truth about humans → we are inherently social creatures. Our biological makeup drives us to live in groups Advantages: gene reproduction, care for offspring, protection against threats. Group = collection of INTERDEPENDENT individuals. People stuck in an elevator → become a group once they rely on each other for escape. Social facilitation and performance The presence of others affects individual performance. Norman Triplett research → 1898 Cyclists perform better against competitors than when alone. Fishing reel spinning task → children spun the reel faster when in the presence of others. However → this is NOT UNIVERSAL. Depends on what the task is → novel or well-learned task. Floyd Allport research → students provided better arguments when alone compared to an audience. Zajonc’s theory of mere presence Zajonc revealed that it is the mere presence of others that affects performance (depending on task complexity). Performance is better in front of an audience when the task is well-learned. Performance is worse in front of an audience when the task is novel or complex. Cockroach example → simple maze was easier when others = present Midterm #2 - End 20  Performance was hindered in the complex maze, watched by others. Co-acting v. mere presence Zajonc distinguished between co-acting individuals (actively competing) versus mere presence (passive observers). Experiments demonstrated that the mere presence of spectators influenced performance outcomes Increased performance → simple task Decreased performance → complex, novel task. Experiment replicated in humans; pool players. Group decision making Group decisions can yield better outcomes → can also lead to groupthink. Groupthink → desire for harmony that compromises critical scrutiny. Lots of self-censorship → lack of free speech among members. Members not encouraged to express differing opinions. Solutions for groupthink → appoint a devil’s advocate, include fresh perspectives, ensure external input. Group Polarization The tendency for group discussions to lead individuals to adopt more extreme positions. Can occur through persuasive arguments than enhance preexisting views. Or by social comparison → individuals aligning their beliefs with those of the group to distinguish themselves. Often leads to radicalization. Midterm #2 - End 21  Power Dynamics in Social Hierarchies Power affects individuals’ capacity to influence contexts. Social hierarchies in relationships create power dynamics that are context- dependent and fluid. Gaining power → through virtue or vice. Virtue → positive contributions, good intentions. Vice → malice, manipulation, greed. Impact of Power on Thought and Behaviour Power alters social perception. Individuals in high power positions → more likely to stereotype others, less empathetic. Results in overconfidence in self → biased assessments of the self and others. Sometimes leads to disinhibited behaviours, unethical conduct. Deindividuation and social behaviour Explains how groups can engage in destructive and impulsive behaviour. Zimbardo’s model → highlights how anonymity and diffusion of responsibility contribute to this state → lowering inhibitions against negative behaviour. Halloween trick or treaters study → kids who are in a group and anonymous more likely to deindividuate → diffuse responsibility → steal coins. Self awareness theory Focusing on oneself can lead to more socially appropriate behaviours. Situations prompting self reflection can diminish impulsivity Midterm #2 - End 22  Enhance adherence to personal and societal standards. Looking in a mirror, etc. Spotlight effect People tend to overestimate how much attention others are paying to them. Individuals often believe that their embarrassing moments are more memorable to others than they actually are → inflated self-consciousness → usually unwarranted. Lecture 19 SWB (Subjective Well-Being) Refers to the self-perceived evaluation of one’s happiness and satisfaction in life. Typically measured in 3 components : life satisfaction, positive affect and negative affect. Construct Validity of SWB Construct validity → examines how accurately these measures assess the concept of happiness. Individuals often provide socially desirable responses instead of their true feelings when asked about happiness levels. Most people consider themselves happy. Diener & Diener (1984) → 89% of Americans reported life satisfaction above the neutral point. In a broader study involving 43 countries in 1996 → 86% self reported being satisfied with their lives. Midterm #2 - End 23  Factors affecting SWB Poorer countries often report lower SWB due to the following factors: Theft or property being stolen Experiencing assault or violence Lack of access to essential resources such as food or water. Canadians → 8/10 happiness before the pandemic. Implications of happiness Happiness = important in construal of life events. Happy people tend to notice threatening situations more quickly → heightened awareness of surroundings. Happiness also motivates people. Happy people also have better coping strategies during negative circumstances → resilient. Happy people live longer. The Heritability of Happiness Lykken and Tellegen (1996) → studied fraternal and identical twins to assess SWB over time. Stability coefficient of SWB is approximately 0.60 after 10 years. 80% of stability in SWB can be attributed to genetic factors Approx 24% is due to genetic influences on happiness a decade later. Increases in life satisfaction are more pronounced when individuals transition from dire circumstances to manageable ones. However, the benefits realized when moving from a manageable situation to a rich one are less substantial. Midterm #2 - End 24  Economic and social aspects of happiness Happiness affecting income is all dependent on STARTING POINT. Those with cheerful dispositions during young adulthood often see increased income potential but this correlation does not hold for individuals who are already poor. Basic psychological needs significantly influence SWB Satisfaction in life often correlates with fulfilling needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. Negative motivations tend to lower SWB, while positive motivations enhance it. The Role of Money and Philanthropy Stronger effect on happiness if you start off poor → become rich Engaging in pro-social spending has been associated with increased happiness, highlighting the positive impact of altruism on SWB. Lecture 20 Understanding the set point in SWB Set point → each individual’s personal baseline for their SWB. Temporary external events can affect SWB → eventually we resort back to our baseline. Suggests that our emotional responses are not only influenced by our circumstances but also by our innate predispositions. Variations in SWB Recent life events Midterm #2 - End 25  Genetics Hedonic treadmill → our reactions are relative to previous experiences, explains why individuals who achieve great success may fail to derive joy from their accomplishments When individuals become accustomed to frequent successes, they may lose the novelty of these experiences. Generally a weak or negligible correlation between happiness and factors such as health, attractiveness, and distant life events Indicates that individuals' happiness levels tend to remain quite stable over time. The genetic role in happiness Fujita and Diener (2005) conducted a longitudinal study over the course of 17 years. Findings revealed that about 24% of participants experienced significant changes in their happiness scores from the first five years to the latter five years. Only about 5% would be expected to change by chance, while 10% reflects a substantial change. Soft set point Baseline level of happiness → not entirely fixed; some individuals experience changes in SWB while others do not. Lucas, 2003 → three phases Baseline → how happy were these people BEFORE Reaction → within two years of the change, Adaptation → after two years → return to baseline? Midterm #2 - End 26  Marital Status and SWB Connection between the two: Selection hypothesis : certain individuals are more likely to attract and form stable, committed relationships, which may benefit their happiness. Social role → specific challenges to different marital states, divorced, widowed etc, Crisis → there are some transitions which can disrupt happiness → fit well with set point. Hedonic levelling → individuals who are already happy may have less to gain from a marriage. Those who are unhappy before marriage might find more to gain from entering a committed relationship. Miswanting → The misjudgement individuals have about what they want and think will make them happier. Cognitive biases affecting happiness Durability bias → Tendency for individuals to overestimate the duration and intensity of their current emotional states. Immune neglect → The underestimation of our emotional resilience following adverse events. Duration neglect → Focusing on the beginning and the endpoint of experiences when considering overall satisfaction, rather than the duration of the experience itself. The James Dean Effect The tendency for people to believe that an amazing life that ends abruptly is better than a life with an additional mildly pleasant years. Named after James Dean → A mega heartthrob who was super successful, died at 24 in a car crash. Midterm #2 - End 27  Factors Affecting SWB Personal resilience Relationships Religious beliefs Work satisfaction Midterm #1 Midterm #2 FINAL EXAM Midterm #2 - End 28