CS 100 Notes (Ch.1-13) PDF

CS 100 Notes (Ch.1-13) CHAPTER 1 – The Impact of Technology on a Changing World 1.1 Impact of Tools of Modern Technology ○ Social Media Tools: Enables people to connect. ○ Crisis Mapping Tools: Collect and map information. 1.2 Global Issues ○ Healthcar...

CS 100 Notes (Ch.1-13) CHAPTER 1 – The Impact of Technology on a Changing World 1.1 Impact of Tools of Modern Technology ○ Social Media Tools: Enables people to connect. ○ Crisis Mapping Tools: Collect and map information. 1.2 Global Issues ○ Healthcare ○ The Environment: Collects data. ○ The Digital Divide: Creates a gap between people. 1.3 Impacts How and Why We Collaborate ○ Collaborating for the Benefit of Others: Content contribution (Web 2.0). ○ Connecting Through Business: Support other people’s dreams. 1.4 Impacts How We Consume ○ Marketing ○ Sharing Economy: Example - Uber. 1.5 Computer Literacy ○ Know how to use computers safely and efficiently: Avoid hackers/viruses. Protecting privacy. Maintain, upgrade, and troubleshoot. Stay up-to-date. 1.6 AI Basics ○ Intelligence: Ability to apply and acquire knowledge. ○ AI: Computer systems able to perform tasks related to human intelligence. Goal: Create machines that think like humans (1950s). Examples: Natural Language Processing (NLP), Problem-solving, Planning. ○ Major Developments in AI: Expert Systems: Mimic human expert experiences. Rules-based Systems: Software that responds based on programmed algorithms. Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs): Mimic the human brain, learns over time. ○ Machine Learning (ML): AI that learns from data without explicit programming. ○ Deep Learning (DL): A subset of ML; learns from mistakes. 1.7 Impact of Technology on Your Career ○ Retail: Data mining to search for patterns. ○ Banking: AI to spot fraud. ○ Transportation: Autopilot. ○ Robots and Embodied Agents: Robots that mimic humans. ○ Education: Plagiarism checkers, Intelligent Personal Assistants. ○ Law Enforcement: Facial recognition. ○ Medicine: Prosthetic devices. ○ Psychology. 1.8 Defining Ethics ○ Ethics: Morals and moral choices. ○ Laws: Formal, written standards. ○ Unethical Behavior: Not conforming to approved standards. ○ Amoral Behavior: No sense of right and wrong. 1.9 Personal Ethics ○ Determining your own personal ethics.  1.10 Ethics and Technology ○ Intellectual Property: Protected by copyrights, patents, trademarks. ○ Privacy ○ Social Justice: Predictive policing. ○ Liability ○ Censorship: Website blocking. ○ Social Activism: Hacktivism. ○ Automated Robotic Machinery: Example - Self-driving cars. CHAPTER 2 – Looking at Computers: Understanding the Parts 2.1 Computers are Data Processing Devices ○ Four Major Functions: 1. Input: Gathering data. 2. Process: Organizing data into information. 3. Output: Displaying data/information. 4. Storage: Saving data for later. 2.2 Binary: The Language of Computers ○ Binary Language: 0s and 1s. ○ Binary Digit (BIT): Each individual 1 or 0. ○ Byte: 8 bits. ○ Units: Kilobytes (KB), Megabytes (MB), Gigabytes (GB). 2.3 Types of Computers ○ Cell Phones: Portable devices with their own software. ○ Tablets: Portable computers with on-screen keyboards. ○ Laptops and Variants: Ultrabook, Chromebook. ○ Stationary Computers: Desktop, All-in-one. ○ Other Types: Mainframe, Supercomputers, Embedded Computers. 2.4 Physical Keyboards and Touch Screens ○ Keyboard: Input device for typing data/commands. ○ Touch Screen: Tap screen to interact. 2.5 Mice and Other Pointing Devices ○ Mouse, Touchpad, Game Controller. 2.6 Image, Sound, and Sensor Input ○ Image: Webcam. ○ Sound: Microphone. ○ Sensors: Magnetometer, Proximity Sensor, Accelerometer, etc. 2.7 Image and Audio Output ○ Display Screens: LCD, LED, OLED. ○ Speakers/Headphones. ○ Printers: Inkjet, Laser, All-in-one, 3D. 2.9 The Motherboard and Memory ○ Motherboard: Main circuit board inside system unit. ○ CPU (Central Processing Unit): Controls functions. ○ RAM (Random Access Memory): Temporary storage. ○ ROM (Read-Only Memory): Permanent storage. ○ Cache: Temporary storage for fast data access. ○ Expansion Cards: Video card, Sound card, Network interface card.  2.10 Processing ○ CPU: Controls computer functions and processes commands. ○ Performance: Measured in gigahertz (GHz), number of cores (single, dual, quad, etc.). 2.11 Storage Options on Computing Devices ○ Hard Drive: Primary storage device. ○ Solid-State Drive (SSD): More efficient, no moving parts. ○ Cloud Storage: Stores data online. 2.12 Computer Ports ○ Ports: Where external devices connect. ○ Examples: USB, HDMI, Thunderbolt, Display Port. 2.13 Power Controls and Power Management ○ Power Supply: Regulates power for chips. ○ Sleep Mode, Hibernate, Warm Boot, Cold Boot. 2.14 Setting it All Up: Ergonomics ○ Ergonomics: Set up to minimize injury. ○ Assistive Technologies: Devices/software for disabilities. CHAPTER 3 – Using the Internet: Making the Most Out of the Web’s Resources (pages 11-16) 3.1 The Origin of the Internet ○ 1958: ARPA established. ○ 1969: First message sent via ARPANET. ○ 1991: HTTP protocol and the World Wide Web (WWW). 3.2 How the Internet Works ○ Client/Server Network: Client asks for data, server returns data. ○ IP Address: Unique identifier for computers on the internet. ○ Text Version of IP Address: Websites have text versions (e.g., www.amazon.com). 3.3 Mass Communication and Collaboration ○ Social Networking: Sharing info online (e.g., Instagram). ○ Online Collaboration: Tools like Google Docs and Zoom. ○ Blog, Podcasts, Webcasts. 3.4 Personal Communication on the Web ○ Email: Written messages sent over the internet. ○ Real-Time Communication: Texting, Instant Messaging. 3.5 Being Productive with Cloud Technologies ○ Cloud Computing: Storing data and apps online for access from any device. 3.6 Conducting Business Online ○ E-Commerce: Online business transactions. ○ B2C, B2B, C2C, Social Commerce. 3.7 E-Commerce Safeguards ○ Take precautions when conducting online business. 3.8 Web Browser ○ Software that allows navigation of the web (e.g., Google Chrome). 3.9 URLs, Protocols, and Domain Names  ○ URL: Unique address of a website. ○ Protocol: Set of rules used to retrieve documents. 3.10 Navigating the Web ○ Hyperlinks: Links that take you to other pages. ○ Breadcrumb Trail: Navigation aid that shows the user’s path. 3.11 Using Search Engines ○ Search Engines: Programs to find specific words online (e.g., Google). ○ SEO (Search Engine Optimization): Designing websites to rank higher in search results. ○ Metasearch Engines: Search engines that search other search engines. ○ Boolean Operators: Words used to refine searches (e.g., AND, OR, NOT). CHAPTER 4 – APPLICATION SOFTWARE: Programs that Let You Work and Play 4.1 Types of Software SOFTWARE: The set of computer programs/instructions that tells the device what to do and enables it to perform different tasks. PROGRAM: A series of instructions to be followed by a computer to accomplish a task. APPLICATION SOFTWARE: A type of program that performs a specific personal/educational/business function (e.g., Spotify, Outlook, Firefox). SYSTEM SOFTWARE: Programs that enable a computer’s hardware devices/applications to work together (e.g., Windows). 4.2 Purchasing Software SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS: Set of minimum storage/memory capacity/processing standards recommended by software manufacturer for software application. FREEWARE: Any copyrighted software that can be used for free (e.g., Blender). BETA VERSION: A version of the software that is still under development. 4.3 Installing and Uninstalling Software LOCAL INSTALLATION: Software installed on your device’s internal storage with one-time purchase (e.g., Aseprite). SOFTWARE AS A SERVICE (SaaS): Software delivered on demand over the internet (e.g., Google Docs). SUBSCRIPTION SOFTWARE: Pay for a monthly/annual fee to use the software (e.g., Adobe Creative Cloud). RESTORE POINT: A type of backup that saves all apps/updates/drivers/info needed to restore your computer system to its exact configuration. FULL INSTALLATION: The process of installing all the files/programs from software to the computer’s hard drive. CUSTOM INSTALLATION: The process of installing only the features of a software program that a user wants. RECOVERY DRIVE: A drive that contains all information needed to reinstall the operating system if it becomes corrupted. 4.4 Upgrading Software UPGRADES: Subscription/SaaS software will update automatically; locally installed software may require payment for upgrades. 4.5 Software License SOFTWARE LICENSE: Agreement between user and the software developer that must be accepted before installing software. END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT (EULA): Protects the software developer’s intellectual property rights. COPYLEFT: A simplified license scheme that enables copyright holders to grant rights to a work while retaining other rights. 4.6 Productivity Software PRODUCTIVITY SOFTWARE: Programs that enable users to perform various tasks required at home/school/business. WORD PROCESSING SOFTWARE: Used to edit/create written documents (e.g., Microsoft Word). SPREADSHEET SOFTWARE: Calculates and performs numerical analysis (e.g., Microsoft Excel). PRESENTATION SOFTWARE: Creates dynamic slide shows (e.g., Google Slides). DATABASE SOFTWARE: Stores and organizes data (e.g., Microsoft Access). NOTE-TAKING SOFTWARE: (e.g., Microsoft OneNote). PERSONAL INFORMATION MANAGER SOFTWARE: Replaces management tasks like calendars/address books/to-do lists (e.g., Microsoft Outlook). PROJECT AND COLLABORATIVE SOFTWARE: Used when working remotely (e.g., Zoom). PERSONAL FINANCE SOFTWARE: Manages finances (e.g., TD). TAX PREPARATION SOFTWARE: Prepares state and federal taxes (e.g., TurboTax). 4.7 Business Software ACCOUNTING SOFTWARE: Helps businesses manage finances. DESKTOP PUBLISHING SOFTWARE (DTP): Designs newsletters and publications. WEB AUTHORING SOFTWARE: Designs web pages (e.g., Weebly). VERTICAL MARKETING SOFTWARE: Software developed for specific business needs. COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN (CAD): 3D modeling software for designs and technical drawings. 4.8 Multimedia Software MULTIMEDIA SOFTWARE: Includes image/video/audio editing software and animation software (e.g., Adobe Creative Cloud). IMAGE EDITING SOFTWARE: For editing digital images (e.g., Photoshop). DIGITAL VIDEO EDITING SOFTWARE: For editing digital video (e.g., iMovie). DRAWING SOFTWARE: For creating/editing 2D drawings (e.g., Adobe Illustrator). 4.9 Audio Software DOWNLOADED FILES: ○ Compressed: MP3, AAC, WMA ○ Uncompressed: WAV, AIFF DIGITAL AUDIO WORKSTATION (DAWs): Software used to record/edit music (e.g., Reaper). AUDIO-EDITING SOFTWARE: Includes tools for editing audio files (e.g., Audacity). 4.10 App Creation Software APP CREATION SOFTWARE: Programming environments that produce apps for multiple devices (e.g., Unity, Scratch). 4.11 Educational and Reference Software EXAMPLES: ○ Simulation programs to guide users through unfamiliar skills. ○ Course management software to provide classroom tools. CHAPTER 5 – SYSTEM SOFTWARE: The Operating System, Utility Programs, and File Management 5.1 Operating System Basics SYSTEM SOFTWARE: Includes the Operating System and Utility Programs. OPERATING SYSTEMS: Programs controlling computer functions, managing hardware, software, and tasks. ○ MANAGING HARDWARE: Involves processor, memory, storage devices, and external devices (e.g., printers). ○ MANAGING SOFTWARE: Allows applications to interact with the CPU.  ○ MANAGING TASKS: Schedules and coordinates tasks (e.g., keyboard input, network resources). USER INTERFACE: The desktop, icons, and menus that enable communication with the computer. SINGLE-USER/SINGLE-TASK OS: Designed for one person performing one task at a time. MULTI-USER/MULTI-TASK OS: Allows one person to perform multiple tasks simultaneously (e.g., Windows). 5.2 Operating Systems for Personal Use COMMON OS: Microsoft Windows, Apple macOS, Linux. MOBILE OS: Modified for handheld devices (e.g., Android). CHROME OS: A web-based OS developed by Google. LINUX: Free, open-source OS for personal computers and web servers. 5.3 Operating Systems for Machinery/Networks/and Business REAL-TIME OS (RTOS): Performs repetitive tasks with minimal user interaction (e.g., traffic control systems). MULTIUSER OS (NOS): Allows more than one user to access a system (e.g., UNIX). 5.4 The User Interface COMMAND-DRIVEN INTERFACE: User enters commands to communicate with the computer. MENU-DRIVEN INTERFACE: User chooses commands from displayed menus. GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE (GUI): Uses graphics, icons, and mouse clicks for interaction (e.g., Windows). 5.5 Hardware Coordination PROCESSOR MANAGEMENT: Handles interrupts, prioritizes tasks, and manages print jobs. MEMORY AND STORAGE MANAGEMENT: Virtual memory and paging help manage data when RAM is full. DEVICE DRIVER: Software that helps the OS communicate with hardware devices. PLUG AND PLAY: Automatically adapts to new hardware. 5.6 Software Application Coordination APPLICATION PROGRAMMING INTERFACE (API): Allows software systems to work together (e.g., Microsoft Direct X). 5.7 The Boot Process BIOS: Activates hardware and loads the OS from storage. POST: Automated check for hardware functionality. LOADING THE OS: Loads system files and kernel into memory. CHECKING CONFIGURATIONS: Verifies system settings (e.g., registry). 5.8 Using Windows 11 DESKTOP: Primary working area. TASKBAR: Displays open and favorite apps. START MENU: Provides access to all applications. VIRTUAL DESKTOP: Organizes windows into different displays. 5.9 Organizing Your Files DIRECTORY: Hierarchical structure organizing files and folders. FILE PATH: Path to a file (e.g., C:\Documents\file.jpg). FILE EXPLORER: Main tool for finding files. Chapter 6 – Understanding and Accessing Hardware: Evaluating Your System 6.1 Moore’s Law Moore's Law: A prediction by Gordon Moore stating that the number of transistors on a CPU chip would double every two years, leading to faster and cheaper computers. 6.2 Selecting a Computing Device Large Number of Choices: There is a wide range of computing devices to choose from, considering different needs like personal, educational, or business use. 6.3 How The CPU Works Machine Cycle: The series of steps a CPU goes through to execute a program instruction: ○ Fetch: The CPU retrieves the binary code from RAM. ○ Decode: The binary code is translated into commands the CPU can execute. ○ Execute: The CPU performs the instructions. ○ Store: The results are saved in the CPU's registers. Main Components: ○ Control Unit: Manages switches inside the CPU. ○ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Handles all arithmetic and comparison operations. Processing Power: Determined by factors like clock speed, number of cores, and cache memory. ○ Clock Speed: The speed at which the CPU completes machine cycles, measured in Hz. ○ Overclocking: Running the CPU faster than the recommended speed. ○ Core: A CPU's core is responsible for processing instructions, and CPUs can have multiple cores for parallel processing. ○ Cache Memory: Temporary storage that holds frequently accessed instructions. ○ Pipelining: A technique that allows the CPU to work on multiple instructions simultaneously. ○ Hyperthreading: Technology that allows the CPU to process multiple threads at once, improving performance. 6.4 Measuring CPU Performance CPU Benchmarks: Performance measurements used to compare different processors. CPU Usage: The percentage of time the CPU is actively working. 6.5 Random Access Memory (RAM) RAM: Temporary storage that holds data for programs currently in use. It is volatile, meaning data is lost when the power is turned off. ROM: Non-volatile memory that stores critical startup instructions. Where is RAM?: RAM is located on memory modules or cards inserted into the motherboard. Capacity: RAM is measured in gigabytes (GB), with most modern machines having at least 8 GB of RAM. Superfetch: A feature in Windows that preloads frequently used programs into RAM. Resource Monitor: Displays how computer resources like CPU, RAM, and disk space are being used. 6.6 Adding RAM Limits: The motherboard has a set number of memory slots, and each slot has a maximum capacity for RAM. Adding RAM: Adding extra RAM is generally easy, but the motherboard’s specifications should be checked for compatibility. 6.7 Types of Storage Drives Mechanical Hard Drives: Large-capacity drives with moving parts (platters) that store data magnetically. They have slower access times. Solid-State Drives (SSD): Faster drives with no moving parts, using electronic memory. SSDs are about 100 times faster than mechanical hard drives. Solid-State Hybrid Drives (SSHD): A combination of a mechanical hard drive and an SSD in one device. 6.8 Storage Needs How Much Storage Do I Need?: Enough space to store the OS, software applications, data files, and digital libraries. Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID): A set of strategies for using multiple storage drives for better performance and data redundancy. 6.9 Video Cards Video Card: A hardware component that translates binary data into images on a monitor. Ports: HDMI, DVI, and Display Port are common connections for video output. Video Memory: RAM included in the video card used for storing image data. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU): A specialized chip dedicated to processing visual data, like shadows and textures. 6.10 Sound Cards Sound Card: An expansion card that enables a computer to produce sound through speakers. 3D Sound Card: A type of sound card that produces omnidirectional sound, simulating 3D audio. Surround Sound: Audio processing that creates the illusion of sound coming from all directions. Dolby Digital 7.1: A surround sound standard that uses eight audio channels. Audio MIDI Interface: A technology that allows musical instruments and microphones to connect to a computer. 6.11 Maintaining System Reliability What Can I Do?: ○ Install reliable antivirus software. ○ Run spyware and adware removal tools. ○ Clear unnecessary files to free up space. ○ Use utilities like Disk Defragmenter to optimize the hard drive. ○ Automate key maintenance tasks. What To Do If System Crashes?: ○ Try system restore. ○ Check if you have enough RAM. ○ Search for error codes online or consult Microsoft’s Knowledge Base. ○ Consider performing a system reset. 6.12 Getting Rid of Your Old Computer Donate: You can donate old computers to non-profit organizations, but ensure all data is removed from the hard drive. Physical destruction of the hard drive is the most secure method. CHAPTER 7 – NETWORKING: Connecting Computing Devices 7.1 Understanding Networks Computer Network: A group of connected computers (nodes) that share information and resources like files. Node: A device connected to a network, such as a computer or peripheral device (e.g., printer). Benefits of Networks: Includes sharing internet, peripherals, files, ensuring security, enabling online gaming/entertainment, and facilitating communications. Network Administration: Involves tasks like installing devices, monitoring performance, updating software, and securing the network. Data Transfer Rate (Bandwidth): The maximum speed at which data is transmitted between nodes, measured in megabits per second (Mbps) or gigabits per second (Gbps). Throughput: The actual data transfer speed achieved, which is usually slower than the data transfer rate. 7.2 Network Designs Network Architectures: Networks can be classified by distance between nodes, management method, or protocols used. ○ PAN (Personal Area Network): Communication between devices close to one person (e.g., Bluetooth). ○ LAN (Local Area Network): Small geographical area (e.g., a computer lab). ○ HAN (Home Area Network): Connects devices within a home (e.g., entertainment devices). ○ MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Network for a city or large geographical area. ○ WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large physical distances, with the Internet being the largest WAN. Ethernet Networks: Widely used home and corporate networks using Ethernet protocol. ○ Wi-Fi: Wireless standard for data transmission, with Wi-Fi 6 (802.11ax) being the current standard.  ○ WiGig: Designed for very fast speeds over short distances. 7.3 Transmission Media Transmission Media: The physical or radio wave channels through which data is transmitted. ○ UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) Cable: Most common for Ethernet networks. ○ Coaxial Cable: Used for cable TV and internet. ○ Fiber-Optic Cable: Uses light to transmit data at high speeds. ○ Wireless Networks: Use radio waves instead of cables for connections. 7.4 Basic Network Hardware Modem: Connects a device to the internet. Router: Routes data packets between networks. Switch: Directs data to its correct destination within a network. Network Adapter: Allows a computer to connect to a network. 7.5 Network Software P2P (Peer-to-Peer Networks): No specialized network software needed, commonly used with operating systems like Windows or macOS. Client/Server Network: Requires specialized software for managing centralized network services. 7.6 Broadband Internet Connections Broadband: High-speed internet, such as cable, DSL, or fiber-optic. ISPs (Internet Service Providers): Companies offering internet access. ○ Fibre-Optic Services: Internet via light-speed transmission. ○ Cable Internet: Uses coaxial cables for data transmission. ○ DSL: Uses twisted-pair telephone lines. ○ Satellite Internet: Connects via satellite dish and a computer. 7.7 Wireless Internet Access Mobile Broadband: Internet via cellular networks (3G/4G/5G). Mobile Hotspot: Devices that enable multiple devices to access the internet through cellular networks. 7.8 Evaluating Your Home Network Ensure all devices are listed, using the latest standards and equipment. 7.9 Devices on a Home Network Wired Devices: Connect to the network via physical ports (e.g., LAN ports on a router). Wireless Devices: Connect to the network wirelessly (e.g., up to 253 devices in some routers). Network-Attached Storage (NAS): Devices for storing and managing data across a network. 7.10 Troubleshooting Wireless Network Problems Wi-Fi range can be affected by walls and other obstructions. A range extender can help amplify signals. 7.11 Securing Wireless Networks Piggybacking: Unauthorized access to someone else’s network. To secure a wireless network, use encryption, change default passwords, disable SSID broadcasts, and keep firmware up to date. CHAPTER 8 – MANAGING YOUR DIGITAL LIFESTYLE: Challenges and Ethics 8.1 Digital Convergence and the Internet of Things Digital Convergence: Using one device for multiple purposes (e.g., smartphone for media, internet, and telephony). Internet of Things (IoT): Devices interconnected to transfer data without human intervention. 8.2 Digital vs. Analog Digitized: Information converted from analog to numerical data. Analog: Continuous signals representing things like sound or color. 8.3 E-Readers E-text: Digital text that can be stored and transmitted. E-readers: Devices for reading e-text (e.g., Amazon Kindle). Electronic Ink: Technology used in e-readers for sharp text representation. 8.4 Borrowing and Publishing E-Books Devices like the Kindle or Nook allow for e-book reading. 8.5 Creating and Storing Digital Music ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter): Converts real-world signals into digital data. Sampling Rate: How often a signal is measured per second to be converted to digital form. Streaming Music Services: Subscription-based services like Spotify or Apple Music. 8.6 Distributing Digital Music Options for Listening: Smart devices, Bluetooth, or CarPlay for listening to digital music. Digital Rights Management (DRM): Restricts the use of legally purchased content. 8.7 Digital Photography CCD (Charge-Coupled Device): Sensors in digital cameras for capturing images. Resolution: The number of data points for an image. RAW Files: Uncompressed image files that preserve all data. 8.8 Digital Video Codec: Compresses video and audio for easier storage and transmission. High Definition (HD): A standard for clear, high-resolution video. 8.9 Digital Challenges and Dilemmas IoT Concerns: Issues like privacy, data collection, and equal access. Cryptocurrency: Digital currencies like Bitcoin. Blockchain: A public ledger for tracking cryptocurrency transactions. Dark Web: Hidden part of the internet often used for illicit activities. 8.10 Intellectual Property Intellectual Property (IP): Legal rights to creations such as inventions, art, or trademarks. Copyright: Exclusive rights of creators over their works. Patents: Protects inventors' rights for 20 years. Trademarks: Identifies goods uniquely. 8.11 Copyright Basics Public Domain: Works with no copyright protection. Creative Commons: A licensing system that allows creators to share their work under specific terms. 8.12 Copyright Infringement Software Piracy: Copying software illegally beyond the allowed license. Fair Use: Allows limited use of copyrighted works for purposes like education. 8.13 Plagiarism Plagiarism: Copying others' work without permission or acknowledgment. 8.14 Hoaxes and Digital Manipulation Hoaxes: Deceptive stories or claims. Fake News: Fabricated stories intended to mislead. Digital Manipulation: Altering media to deceive viewers. 8.15 Protecting Your Online Reputation Online Reputation: Publicly available information about you online that influences your real-world reputation. Persistence of Information: Content that remains online even after it’s deleted. Chapter 9 – Securing Your System: Protecting Digital Data and Devices 1. Cybercrime and Identity Theft: ○ Cybercrime includes criminal actions conducted primarily via computers, such as identity theft. This involves using someone else's personal data for fraudulent purposes, including activities like counterfeiting credit cards, changing addresses, and opening new credit accounts. 2. Hacking: ○ Hackers can be categorized into white-hat (ethical hackers), black-hat (criminal hackers), and gray-hat hackers (who operate between ethical and unethical). ○ Various terms include "trojan horse" (malicious software disguised as useful programs) and "rootkit" (tools that enable hackers to control systems undetected). 3. Virus Types and Malware: ○ Viruses such as boot-sector viruses and worms spread through networks, often causing harm. Malware includes adware, spyware, and keyloggers, designed to steal personal data or disrupt operations. 4. Social Engineering: ○ This refers to manipulating people into revealing sensitive information, often through phishing or pretexting. 5. Firewalls and Antivirus Protection: ○Firewalls block unauthorized access to computers, and antivirus software detects and neutralizes malware. 6. Password and Biometric Authentication: ○ Strong passwords and biometric devices like fingerprints or facial recognition are essential for securing personal data. 7. Data Backup: ○ Regular backups ensure that important files can be restored in case of data loss due to cyber attacks or other issues. 8. Environmental Protection: ○ Surge protectors and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) help protect against power surges that can damage devices. Chapter 10 – Behind the Scenes: Software Programming  1. Importance of Programming: ○ Programming careers offer robust job prospects and good salaries. Understanding basic programming tools like macros is crucial for automating tasks. 2. System Development Life Cycle (SDLC): ○ SDLC involves stages like identifying the problem, analysis, design, development, testing, and maintenance. 3. Programming Languages: ○ Various generations of programming languages, from low-level machine languages to high-level languages like Java and Python, each have different applications and ease of use. 4. Algorithm Development: ○Algorithms provide step-by-step instructions for solving problems. Tools like flowcharts and pseudocode are used to document algorithms before coding begins. 5. Debugging: ○ The debugging process identifies and fixes errors in code, ensuring that the program performs as expected. CHAPTER 11 – BEHIND THE SCENES: Database and Information System 11.1 Database Basics Database: A digital collection of related data that can be stored, organized, and queried. Advantages: Efficient data management, enabling information sharing, and promoting data integrity. Data Centralization: Storing data in a single database. Data Integrity: Ensuring the accuracy and reliability of data. 11.2 Flat Databases Flat Database: A database often represented as a list or table. Data Redundancy: Repeated data entries. Data Inconsistency: When the same data differs across multiple locations. Inappropriate or Incomplete Data: Invalid or missing data entries. 11.3 Relational Databases Relational Database: Organizes data into tables based on logical groupings. Relationships: Connections between tables (One-to-Many, One-to-One, Many-to-Many). Normalization: The process of organizing data to ensure efficiency. 11.4 Object-Oriented Databases Object-Oriented Database: Stores data in objects rather than tables, handling unstructured data like audio, video, and large documents. BLOB (Binary Large Object): A format for storing large files in databases. Object Query Language (OQL): A query language for object-oriented databases. 11.5 Multidimensional Databases Multidimensional Database: Stores data from different perspectives (dimensions) and organizes it in a cube format. Advantages: Faster processing and customizable information retrieval. 11.6 NoSQL Databases  NoSQL Databases: Non-relational databases designed to store unstructured data from web-based sources like social media and location-based information. 11.7 Relational Database Components and Functions Database Management System (DBMS): Software to create and manage databases. Main Operations: Storing, viewing, querying, and outputting data. Fields, Records, Tables: Components for storing and organizing data in databases. Primary Key: A unique field in a record ensuring no duplicates. Foreign Key: A common field between tables, not a primary key. Referential Integrity: Ensures data consistency across related tables. 11.8 Inputting and Managing Data Input Forms: Control data entry in databases. Validations: Ensuring entered data meets specified rules. Checks: Include range checks, completeness, consistency, alphabetic, and numeric checks. 11.9 Data Warehouse and Data Marts Data Warehouse: A large-scale collection of data from multiple sources. Data Mart: A subset of a data warehouse focused on specific data segments. 11.10 Data Mining Data Mining: Analyzing large datasets to identify patterns and trends. Techniques: Anomaly detection, association rules, clustering, and regression. 11.11 Business Information Systems Information System: Systems that support planning and decision-making by combining data, people, procedures, and software. Types of Systems: ○ Transaction Processing Systems (TPS): Track everyday activities. ○ Management Information Systems (MIS): Provide timely and accurate information for decision-making. ○ Decision Support Systems (DSS): Assist managers in solving specific problems. ○ Enterprise Resource Planning Systems (ERP): Centralizes business information for easier decision-making. ○ Business Intelligence Systems: Help analyze data for improved business decisions. Chapter 12: Behind the Scenes:Networking and Security in the Business World Objective 12.1: Networking Advantages Advantages: ○ Enables sharing of peripherals, resources, data, and software. ○ Enhances communication. Disadvantages: ○ May require additional personnel. ○ Requires special equipment and software. Objective 12.2: Comparing Client/Server and Peer-to-Peer Networks Client/Server Network: ○ Centralized structure. ○ More efficient data flow. ○ Scalable (more users can be added without affecting performance). Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network: ○ Decentralized structure (each node can act as both client and server). Objective 12.3: Types of Client/Server Networks Local Area Network (LAN): Few users over a small geographic area. Wide Area Network (WAN): Many users over a wide physical area. Intranet: A private network set up by a business. Extranet: A portion of the intranet used by specific external users. Virtual Private Networks (VPN): Secure, private networks built over public internet. Key Components of Client/Server Networks: ○ Servers ○ Network topologies ○ Transmission media ○ Network adapters ○ Network navigation devices ○ Network operating system Objective 12.4: Servers Dedicated Servers: Perform specific functions like print, application, database, authentication, file, email, communications, web/cloud services. Virtualization: Allows a single physical server to act as multiple virtual devices. Objective 12.5: Network Topologies Bus Topology: ○ Computers connected in sequence on a single cable. ○ Data collisions can occur, and terminators absorb signals. ○ Advantages: Simple and low-cost. Ring Topology: ○ Nodes form a circular structure; data passes through each node in a sequence. ○ Uses a "token" to regulate data flow. ○ Advantages: Fair resource allocation; performance remains stable. ○ Disadvantages: One computer failure can disrupt the entire network. Star Topology: ○ Nodes are connected to a central device (hub or switch). ○ Advantages: Easy to add nodes; failure of one node does not affect others; troubleshooting is simpler. ○ Disadvantages: Initially higher cost, but not as significant now. Objective 12.6: Transmission Media Wired Transmission Media: ○ Twisted-pair cables: Pairs of copper wires twisted to reduce interference. ○ Coaxial cable: Used when there's heavy electrical interference; consists of a core, insulating material, metal shielding, and an outer jacket. ○ Fiber-optic cable: Uses light signals for data transmission; immune to interference. Wireless Transmission Media: ○ Offers mobility and convenience. ○ Businesses often use a combination of wired and wireless media. Factors for Choosing Cable Types: ○ Maximum run length: How far data can travel before signal degrades. ○ Bandwidth: Amount of data transmitted per second (bps). ○ Bend radius: How much the cable can bend without damage. ○ Cost and installation: Varies between cable types. ○ Interference: Sources include electromagnetic and radio frequency interference. Objective 12.7: Network Adapters Functions of Network Adapters:  ○ Generate high-power signals. ○ Break data into packets. ○ Act as gatekeepers to manage network traffic. ○ Available for both wired and wireless connections. Objective 12.8: MAC Addresses MAC (Media Access Control) Address: ○ A unique identifier for a network adapter, consisting of 6 two-character blocks (e.g., 01:40:87:44:79:A5). ○ First 3 blocks identify the manufacturer, and the remaining part is unique to the device. ○ Different from IP addresses. Objective 12.9: Switches, Bridges, and Routers Switch: Sends data to the appropriate network node. Bridge: Connects different collision domains and ensures data flow between them. Router: Sends information between different networks, directing data to its correct destination. Objective 12.10: Network Operating Systems Network Operating System (NOS): ○ Installed on both client and server computers to facilitate communication. ○ Supports peer-to-peer communication in Windows. ○ TCP/IP is the standard networking protocol. Objective 12.11: Client/Server Network Security Sources of Security Threats: ○ Human errors and mistakes. ○ Malicious human activity. ○ Natural events and disasters. Authentication: ○ Methods to verify user identity, such as passwords, biometric devices, and security tokens. Access Privileges: Restrict access to network resources based on user roles. Physical Protection: Measures like access cards and biometric authentication. Multi-factor Authentication: Requires two of three factors (something you know, something you have, something you are). Firewalls: ○ Can be software or hardware. ○ Packet screening: Examines incoming data packets for potential threats. ○ Proxy server: Acts as an intermediary for external communications. Chapter 13: Behind the Scenes: How the Internet Works Objective 13.1: Internet Management Internet Society: Leads the growth and development of the Internet. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF): Focuses on researching new internet technologies. Internet Architecture Board (IAB): Provides direction for maintaining and developing Internet protocols. Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN): Manages the domain name system (DNS) and allocates IP addresses. World Wide Web Consortium (W3C): Sets standards and develops protocols for the web. Objective 13.2: Networking Components Internet: A network of networks. Backbone: Main paths of the Internet; high-speed connections that carry data. Internet Exchange Point (IXP): A hub for Internet Service Providers (ISPs) to connect. Point of Presence (PoP): A location where network devices (modems, routers) are housed for ISP connectivity. Client/Server Model: The architecture used for Internet communication.  ○ Common Internet Servers: Web servers, commerce servers, file servers. Objective 13.3: Data Transmission Protocol: A set of rules for data exchange on the network. Circuit Switching: A dedicated connection between two points; inefficient for data burst transmission. Packet Switching: Breaks data into packets for simultaneous transmission over various routes. Each packet includes: ○ Destination address ○ Origin address ○ Reassembly instructions ○ Data being transmitted TCP/IP: The main suite of protocols for Internet communication. ○ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are key components. Objective 13.4: IP Addresses IP Address: A unique identifier for Internet devices, managed by ICANN. ○ IPv4: Created in 1981, provides over 4 billion addresses. ○ IPv6: Introduced to support the growth of Internet-enabled devices. Types of IP Addresses: ○ Static: Assigned permanently, often by a network administrator. ○ Dynamic: Temporary, assigned from a pool of available addresses (commonly used with DHCP). Objective 13.5: Domain Names Top-Level Domain (TLD): Examples include.com,.org, and others managed by ICANN. Second-Level Domain: The unique part of a domain name within a TLD. DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names to IP addresses. Objective 13.6: Web Development HTML: A markup language that defines the structure of web pages using tags. ○ Example: This should be bolded and italicized. Cascading Style Sheets (CSS): A set of rules for styling HTML elements. XML: A language used for data representation, not presentation; enables data validation via XML Schema. JSON: A lightweight data interchange format that is human-readable. HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols for transferring hypertext documents across the web, with HTTPS being the secure version (using SSL/TLS). Objective 13.7: Application Architecture Server-Side Applications: Run on the server and can involve complex operations with many communication sessions between client and server. Client-Side Applications: Run on the client’s computer and interact with the server only when needed. Embedded Scripting: HTML embedded scripting languages like JavaScript run directly in the browser and handle client-side actions. Objective 13.8: Types of Internet Communication E-mail: One of the most common forms of communication, using SMTP for sending messages. Instant Messaging (IM): A real-time communication method using client programs to connect to a chat server. Objective 13.9: Encryption Encryption: The process of encoding data to keep it secure during transmission. Private-Key Encryption: Involves a shared secret key known only to the communicating parties. Public-Key Encryption: Uses a key pair (public and private keys). The public key encrypts data, and the private key is used for decryption. Only the receiver has access to the private key.