Crime Part B - Capital Punishment (PDF)

CRIME PART B CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (1859): Murder rape treason (bunch of other crimes) warranted death penalty (1865): Murder, rape, treason ONLY (between 1867-1962: 720 executions administered) CLAIMSMAKING: Robert Bickerdike (1843-1928) believed: - Capital punishment is murder - Capital punish...

CRIME PART B CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (1859): Murder rape treason (bunch of other crimes) warranted death penalty (1865): Murder, rape, treason ONLY (between 1867-1962: 720 executions administered) CLAIMSMAKING: Robert Bickerdike (1843-1928) believed: - Capital punishment is murder - Capital punishment is un christian - Capital punishment is excessively brutal - Capital punishment is unnecessary - Capital punishment was ineffective as a deterrent - Possibility of a judicial error (mistake) made it unconscionable Hanging of Patrick Whelan (lot of media coverage of hangings, they were a spectacle) (1870: LAST PUBLIC HANGING) MEDIA COVERAGE: Hamilton brothers - Two racialized, poor brothers who were both hanged - Jury of “superior intelligence(??)” took fifty minutes to deliver a guilty verdict - Media believed the hamilton brothers deaths would deter people from crime MEDIA COVERAGE (Post 1960) MEDIA (UNITED STATES): Talk about capital punishment only rising Contemporary media critical of capital punishment, frames based on: - Fairness - Constitutionality - Morality - Cost - Innocence PUBLIC REACTION: Opinion polls in Canada in the 1980s - 50%-75% of canadians wanted return of capital punishment, especially for murders of children/police officers POLICY MAKING: OPINIONS BEGAN TO CHANGE IN THE 1960S (1976): Death penalty removed from criminal code (1998): Removed from criminal law SOCIAL PROBLEMS WORK (against Capital Punishment): - INCAPACITATION (specific deterrence, cant commit again if your imprisoned) - DETERRENCE (people within a society fear imprisonment, so deterred) - RETRIBUTION - REHABILITATION (people can be rehabbed when they're already in the system) DISCUSSIONS: FREE WILL/DETERMINISM: Justified to punish someone because they made the choice to commit a crime; however there is much more situational nuance (poverty/age/etc) SANCTITY OF LIFE: All life should be protected PROTECTION OF SOCIETY: where is the balance between the individuals right and societies right ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAW: People serving life sentences when they’re innocent (David Milgaard, served 23 years for murder before exonerated) CONTEMPORARY ARGUMENTS AGAINST CAPITAL PUNISHMENT - Data does not support it as a deterrent (we don't always act rationally) - Risk killing an innocent person - State must set example by recognizing sanctity of life (protect all citizens) - Many cases, offender lacked opportunity to develop into responsible citizen - May result in jury finding accused innocent, for fear they may be killed - May be more costly (the appeal process is expensive) WHY DON'T SEVERE PENALTIES DETER CRIME?? - Offenders ignore risk of getting caught - Low likelihood of being arrested/convicted/punished - Rate of incarceration so low harsh sentences only impact small amount of criminals - Those with drug/alcohol problems not deterred - Some offenders unaware of sentence they face if convicted Existing level of punishment is severe enough to deter most of us, just needs to be enforced BIGGEST FAILURE IN mandatory sentencing/deterrence policies: War on Drugs HEALTH AND ILLNESS DEFINITIONS OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS Biomedical View of Medicine: A Medical perspective that emphasizes Western scientific principles and defines health as the ABSENCE of illness - Views the human body as a machine that sometimes requires repair - Definition is INADEQUATE since health is a ‘passive’ default state of normalcy while illness is an ‘active’ problem in need of treatment Well Being: A positive state of existence characterized by happiness/prosperity/satisfaction of basic human needs (health not simply the absence of negative conditions) - World Health Organization defines health as “state of complete physical, mental, and social wellbeing Biopsychosocial View: health and disease are products of the interaction between body, mind, and environment - Relative contribution of each factor vary from condition to condition/person to person - Must find the role of each factor and tailor interventions accordingly Psychiatrists really pushed for the legalization of cannabis but only for purchase over 25 EPIDEMIOLOGY: Examines the cause, distribution and control of disease in population - GOAL: Prevent disease in population LIFE EXPECTANCY: Has increased dramatically in last century; still life expectancy disparity between rich and poor nations SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH The Social Determinants of Health (SDOH): The complex causal relationships between various social, economic, and political factors and population health outcomes - SDOH beyond control of the individual - According to WHO, SDOH responsible for 80% of an individuals health outcomes - INCLUDE: income, indigenous status, social exclusion, health services, gender, disability, race, employment, ETC INCOME INEQUALITY: Some researchers proposed that income inequality matters more than the socioeconomic gradient in health; studied by Richard Wilkinson (health and social problem are worse in more unequal countries) (women outlive men despite all social inequalities, however rich outlive poor in all scenarios) (infant mortality rates higher the poorer you are, and lower the richer you are) (Biomedical conditions (diabetes/high blood pressure/mental disorders/poor health) HIGHER in poorer people)(except BLOOD PRESSURE; could be high for rich people due to stressful jobs) (higher income inequality, higher homicide rates) (increase in life expectancy in relation to GDP only significant when taking a VERY POOR country and increasing GDP) HEALTH OF INDIGENOUS CANADIANS: Compared to Non-Indigenous Canadians, Indigenous Canadians have lower life expectancies and higher rates of: - Suicide - Trauma - Infant mortality - Diabetes / other chronic diseases - Some infectious diseases (First nations men and women life expectancy SIGNIFICANTLY lower than non indigenous) SOCIAL EXCLUSION: Process of excluding members of a group from normal interactions and sharing of benefits - Social exclusion a process rather than a stable artifact - POST 2000s immigration (increased exclusion) More racialized Religious divide Increased social inequalities - Erosion of ‘healthy immigrant effect’ (immigrants health tanking significantly) SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH EXPLAINED - STRESS Increases cortisol levels in the brain Chronically high levels of cortisol linked to depression, high blood pressure, decreased immune function - LACK OF SOCIAL COHESION DURKHEIM: lower suicide rates in religious, married, and during wartime Contemporary researchers in this field argue that people who are socially dislocated adopt unhealthy behaviors to adapt to alienation(alcohol/drugs, food) BRUCE ALEXANDER: set up a lab with 2 identical comfortable rat cages, cages had feeders with a bottle of water and DRUG SOLUTION. Only difference was one rat cage contained a LARGE GROUP of rats, the other cage had a SOLITARY RAT. Found that GROUP OF RATS tried the drug, but eventually went back to the water. The SOLITARY RAT consumed so much of the drugs it overdosed. Concluded it was not the DRUG that caused addiction, it was the lack of social cohesion ((‘OUTLIERS BOOK’)) - LACK OF SOCIAL CAPITAL Comparing social capital trends between 2003 - 2013, INCREASE of Canadians reporting:  - Having 3 or more close friends - Having done a favor for a neighbor in the past month - Having a few friends from a visibly different ethnic group Despite having more friends, less frequent contact with them Fewer canadians say they're a part of a group, association, organization Same percentage thought ‘most people can be trusted’ - LACK OF SENSE OF COHERENCE Anton Antonovsky, 1979 ‘Sense of Coherence:’ - Life is comprehensible and predictable - Sufficient resources available to help me if needed - Life makes sense and has meaning Resilience (some people grow in bad environments but turn out okay, some don't. Why?) Safe place/ healthy place close by to get away from bad situations Within chaos, there was something predictable (ex: go to church on sunday) Internal Locus of Control: believe within yourself you can succeed (meritocracy) - SOCIAL MODEL OF DISABILITY Dominant model used in sociology of disability studies Impairment vs. Disability (impairment physical, disability is in the social world) It is society that disables (does not provide accommodations for impairments) CHAPTER 7: SUBSTANCE USE ISSUES DRUG USE has decreased among youth in Canada since 1970s Even amongst adults, smoking has decreased, but problematic alcohol consumption remains the same (Canada is a HIGH cannabis consuming country) (Alcohol is the most long lasting and problematic drug) OPIOIDS, STIMULANTS, ILLICIT DRUGS In 2019, Canadians reported - 3% using 1 of 6 illegal drugs (cocaine, crack, meth, ecstasy, hallucinogens, heroin) - 1% reported problematic use of opioid/pain relievers - Edmonton has Methamphetamine problem above other Canadian cities OPIOIDS OPIUM: drugs that come directly from the poppy plant OPIATES: drugs derived from the poppy (morphine, codeine) OPIOIDS: opiates, synthetic opiates (heroine, oxycodone, percocet, fentanyl) OXYCONTIN - Time released format, with the strength of Morphine - BENEFITS: no aspirin or acetaminophen which meant no liver damage - First sold in 1996 by American drug maker Purdue Pharma - Because of time release, marketed as non addictive compared to other pain medications(falseee) (Since 2016, 47,000 people have died from opioid related overdoses in Canada) - EARLY 2010s: Most overdose deaths from prescription opioid drugs - 2015-2016: Death Epidemic, mostly from Fentanyl - 2020s: 75% of deaths involve fentanyl, 50% also involved psychostimulant substances (meth). Increasingly, deaths are involving anti anxiety drugs Young people (20-40) most likely to die from opioid related death, and men more likely than women CLAIMS MAKING DR DAVID HADDOX: Claimed patients in pain couldn't become addicted to opioids because the pain neutralized the euphoric effects of the drug RUSSELL PORTENOY - Study with Kathleen Foley (1986) launched the opioid treatment movement, and influenced physician prescribing. They knew the drug was addictive but claimed otherwise, saying use was “safe, salutary and humane” MEDIA Media reporting on opioid use spiked in 2016 (emergence of fentanyl) Canadian media when reported on Opiods (2020) emphasized: 1) UNSAFE PRESCRIBING 2) DANGEROUSNESS OF THE DRUG  3) TRAFFICKING AFFECTED INDIVIDUALS 1) YOUNG PEOPLE 2) LEGITIMATE USERS 3) ADDICTS THE PROCESS OF PERSUASION THE ELEMENT OF PERSUASION: - The Communicator - The Message - How the Message is Communicated - The Audience STONER SLOTH CAMPAIGN: Focused on YOUTH - Use of honour - Friends walking away - Incompetence in social setting (especially concerning peers) - Not presented in criminological frame - No information on quitting - Suggests we can just choose not to use - Humour may serve to glamourize smoking pot SUBSTANCE USE DISORDER (SUD) SYMPTOMS: 1) Impaired Control: Using more of a substance/using more often than intended 2) Social Problems: Neglecting responsibilities/relationships. Inability to complete tasks 3) Risky Use: Using in risky setting; continued use despite knowing problems 4) Physical Dependence: Needing more of substance to get effect, withdrawal symptoms CAUSAL STORIES AND POLICY MAKING (Stone, 1989) - Intentional Causes: Crisis owed to deliberate lies about addiction potential by Purdue - Accidental Causes: Something ran amok (ex: tablet could be crushed/snorted) - Inadvertent Causes: No one couldve predicted the crisis/addiction potential of drug - Mechanical Causes: doctors blamed for overprescribing, drug dealer activities, only people susceptible to addiction developed problematic use INTENTIONAL CAUSES: Had to cease marketing of opioids in 2018, purdue pharma pled guilty to criminal charges saying they ‘misled doctors and patients’ ACCIDENTAL CAUSES: OxyNEO developed to work around crushing/snorting of drug INADVERTENT CAUSES: Widespread education campaigns in place to warn of addiction MECHANICAL CAUSES: Enhanced prescription monitoring programs to watch for overprescribing; increased scrutiny at border to watch for drug smugglers, Harm Reduction HARM REDUCTION MEASURES: Pragmatic response to drug use - Emerged out of failures of criminological approaches to illicit drug use - Aims to reduce secondary harms of drug misuse(blood infections, death, victimization) - Reduces death by addiction by removing barriers to treatment (destigmatizing addiction) PORTUGAL AND DECRIMINALIZATION (Began in 2001) - Decrease in problematic drug use and addiction - Decrease in new HIV infections - Decrease in hepatitis infections - Decrease in overdose deaths - Decrease in drug related crime - Decrease in incarceration rate HARM REDUCTION IN CANADA (1964): Methadone introduced to treat opioid addiction (1989) syringe exchange program introduced (2000): Medicinal cannabis introduced (2003): INSITE legal supervised injection site (2005): NAOMI prescription heroin program (2018) legalization of cannabis (2023) BC decriminalized small amounts of hard drugs (reversed 2024) SOCIAL PROBLEM WORK & POLICY OUTCOMES RECENT POLICY FAILURE OWING TO: 1) Increasing toxicity of illicit drugs; changes in use patterns (inhalation) 2) Stigmatization (education has improved stigmatization, may be ineffective for those at highest risk) 3) Unaddressed social determinants (Poverty, Exclusion, Trauma) 4) Poor funding of mental health/treatment; REHAB NOT AVAILABLE (4 month wait in alberta)(30,000$ a month for immediate treatment) CHAPTER 8: MENTAL ILLNESS AS A SOCIAL PROBLEM DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION: The process of shifting mental health care from long stay psychiatric institutions to community mental health services; began 1960s - Psychiatric hospitals have been the primary model for delivering mental health services in Canada - Prior to 1960s, if you had a chronic psychological illness you would likely live your whole life in a psychiatric facility CONTEXT OF DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION: Civil Libertarianism (civil rights movement, hippies) Critique of Psychiatric Hospitals Confidence in newly introduced Antipsychotic Medication (chlorpromazine) Promise of Community Mental Health services (never came to fruition)(FAIIILLL) MENTAL ILLNESS AND HOMELESSNESS IN CANADA: (1996): Toronto's homeless task force (30-35% of homeless people suffer from mental illness) - 75% are single women (2003): Edmonton Homelessness Study (57% of men, 72% of women had mental illness) MEDIA/STIGMA: Media portray the mentally ill as violent, unpredictable, threat to society - Media representation can override people's own experiences of mental illness Result of Deinstitutionalization: - Homelessness - Violence and Suicide - Poverty - Victimization - Stigma - Family stress - Jails - Revolving Hospital/Community Door (in and out of system) - Substance abuse WHY DO PEOPLE WHO RESPOND WELL TO MEDICATION STOP TAKING THEM? - Most people don't use their medications as prescribed - Side effects - To take them is to admit defeat; admit to having a psychiatric illness (accept living in stigmatized, less valued mind/body) - Break through thought disorder(stops working); paranoia about the medications - Anosognosia (you don't realize your sick due to impaired brain function) (1950): Deinstitutionalization; Problems associated with living in the community (2000s): Community Treatment Orders (CTOs) COMMUNITY TREATMENT ORDERS: Agreement one signs agreeing to terms (ex: taking medication, visiting psychiatric nurse regularly, etc) in order to avoid being hospitalized - Medico-legal provisions (if you don't honor agreement, you will be committed)  - Considered an alternative to involuntary hospitalized; - Designed to address ‘revolving patient door’ INTRODUCTION OF CTOS: CTO policy is very often introduced into legislation after a critical juncture - Kendra's Law (New York, 1999): Women killed by ill person not taking their medication - Laura's Law (California, 2001): Another woman killed by someone unmedicated - Brian's Law (Ontario, 2000) Life taken by someone in a psychotic episode ALBERTA 2010: James Galloway: RCMP killed by unmedicated person in psychotic episode CTO CRITERIA: - Mental Disorder diagnosis - History of formal admissions - Likely to cause harm to self/others OR condition will result in mental/physical deterioration is left untreated - Consent provided by patient (if competent)/Substitute Decision Maker (if incompetent) UNDERSTANDING ADAPTATION OF CTO POLICIES - Compassionate Grounds (helping those who cant help themselves)(availability of effective medication) - Cost pressures on Health Budgets (couldn't keep people institutionalized) - Public Pressure (people believed they were nuisances/dangerous) SKULLS THEORY OF DEINSTITUTIONALIZATION Believed deinstitutionalization in 1950s-1960s NOT due to: - Antipsychotic medication treatment revolution - Civil libertarianism - Impact of critiques on institutionalism BUT RATHER BECAUSE OF: - Arrival of social welfare system - Massive expansion of the role of the state during 1940s MACRO HISTORICAL APPROACH TO CTOS (1957): National Hospital Insurance & Diagnostic Services Act (1966): Medical Care Act - Separated general hospitals and psychiatric hospitals - Services rendered in psychiatric hospitals not eligible for federal reimbursement TOWARDS UNDERSTANDING CTOS - Reinstitutionalization? - Evidence based practice - Non-competing agendas - Introduction coincided with adoption of neoliberal policies (responsibilize the un-responsibilizable) (CLAIMS MAKING still ongoing; some agree with CTOs some dont believe theres evidence) CHAPTER 9 AND 12: WORKPLACES AND FAMILIES STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM: Work contributes to societal stability: - Lets people acquire material necessities of life for themselves/families (food, shelter) - Allows workers to satisfy emotional needs (be productive member of society, interact) - Provides opportunity for social interaction, social solidarity, sharing of social meanings CONFLICT THEORY: Under capitalism, workplace is place of exploitation - Work is alienating - Drive corporate profit results through exploitation of workers - Most vulnerable workers lose jobs first when economy slumps, capitalists won't suffer MARX: Class relations under capitalism cause the most important conflicts within/between societies, because they have opposing interests - Capitalists want to maximize profits; working class wants largest possible share of profits - In this ‘contested terrain’, there can never be peace and cooperation THE GIG ECONOMY: Economic organization that involves series of temporary or short term jobs - Typically part time, precarious, no benefits - Gig work has increased dramatically over the past few decades For many jobs low levels of skill needed, so many digital platforms are easy to enter and deliberately recruit as many workers as possible - Oversupply of labour guarantees steady supply of workers on demand - Often rely on ubiquity of mobile devices to reach enormous pool of workers/customers PLATFORM CAPITALISM: Business model where digital platforms facilitate interactions, transactions, and services between different user groups (EX: customers/producers) (AMAZON MTURK: Crowdsourcing website where businesses can hire “crowdworkers” located around the world to perform tasks that computers are currently unable to do.) Advantages of gig work for workers: - No boss to answer to -Theoretically you can make your own schedule -Freedom - No background check -Can remove racial/social bias; anonymous work. Employment based on skills Advantages of gig work for employers:  - Superfluous labour force; lots of people that can do the job -No interview process - Way to work around minimum wage; no set income they must pay Disadvantages of gig work for workers: - Pay is unreliable, no stable income - Not making a lot of money - Expected to be on call 24/7 - Outsourcing to countries where work is done cheaper - Some only paid in coupons/vouchers; no freedom of spending THE ECONOMY: Social institution that organizes production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services (Goods are commodities)(Services are activities that benefit others) SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY - PRIMARY: Part of the economy that draws raw materials from natural environment (ex: fish) - SECONDARY: Part of the economy that transforms raw materials into manufactured goods (ex: making shirts out of cotton)(pays better then primary) - TERTIARY: Part of the economy that involve services rather than goods (ex: education) - QUATERNARY: Part of the economy that provides information services (Canada lost alot of SECONDARY economy jobs, EX: production of cars moved to Mexico) (Cheaper labour) CAPITALISM: System based on private ownership of the means of production - Any wealth generating property - Land, factories, machines, capital to produce commodities System of Unequal Exchange - Capitalists control the means of production - Workers have no choice but to sell their labour Capitalist Class Organizes Production for Most Profits - Goal is profit, so work structured in the most efficient way - Workers are paid as little as possible [ROLE OF GOVERNMENT (laws, regulations) is to ensure ‘level playing field’][prevent monopolies] AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION: For most human history, the mode of production was hunting and gathering - Often nomadic, no surplus production, homogeneity AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION (domestication of plants/animals) provided farmers with the capacity to produce large surplus of food for the first time, created inequality) THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION: 18th century, changed the way people work even further - Industrialism created innovations in agricultural practices, further increasing efficiency - Factory system created large surpluses - Machines replaced humans hands, electrical power replaced human physical labour  - Jobs became more specialized as manufacturing processes became more complex POST INDUSTRIALISM AND GLOBAL ECONOMY: Late 20th century, industrialism evolved into post industrialism - Shift from manufacturing economy to economy based on services and information - Technology has increased the flow of information/products/people - Global capitalism supported growth of huge multinational corporations which destroy smaller businesses(ex: walmart)(enrich the wealthy and fuel growing inequality) - Multinational trade agreements like NAFTA allow: Removal of tariffs for import/export Gain access to raw materials in foreign countries Employ cheap labour overseas Avoid government controls over workers rights/pollution OUTSOURCING OF LABOUR to pay less and avoid regulations (developing countries have no maximum work hours, no need for safety regulations, etc) CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBAL ECONOMY - Global division of labour - Products pass through several nations - National governments have less control - Small number of businesses control vast share of market (walmart, uber) - Concerns about rights and opportunities of workers (gig economy circumventing minimum wage) TECHNOLOGICAL DUALISM: explosion of telecommunications and computer technology has resulted in unemployment and in the growth of jobs that demand skilled workers - Fast paced development has caused skills to become outdated - Constant upgrading needed for workers to remain competitive in changing job market MACHINES REPLACE PAID LABOUR: - Automatic checkouts (stores, libraries) - ATMS - Movie Ticket Kiosks - Meal Ordering UNEMPLOYMENT: - DISCRIMINATORY UNEMPLOYMENT: Unemployment resulting from discrimination against particular groups, such as ethnic minorities and women - STRUCTURAL UNEMPLOYMENT: Unemployment caused by social and economic factors that affect workers equally across all groups: Downsizing Capital Flight (corporate mergers, move of operations to foreign regions) Automation of work processes SOCIAL CONSEQUENCES OF UNEMPLOYMENT: INDIVIDUAL LEVEL:  - Being unemployed is the largest determinant of life satisfaction, evening controlling for income - Unemployed people are often marked with stigma of being lazy/unwilling to work SOCIETAL LEVEL: - With people out of workforce, economy cant reach its utmost potential for production - Costs of reserving a social and financial support network to help those between jobs (EX: welfare, those stealing because of lack of income, removing children from homes) WORKER ORGANIZATION AND UNIONS: - Developed by workers in 20th century in effort to protect themselves from exploitatively long workdays, hazardous work environments, and low pay/discriminatory practices - Because of them we now have maximum workday/week, right to refuse unsafe work CHALLENGES: Global capitalists and governments hostile towards unions and worker organizations Corporations close stores when workers unionize Employers fight union certification Employers may stall negotiations UNIONS AND STRIKE WAVE TODAY: - For Wage Catchup - Balance (right to remote work)(commute is unpaid) - Who benefits from technology change? (they replace workers) - Knowledge of life fragility (what we want from life) FEMINIST THEORY: - Canadian women still are disproportionately engaged in work that yields little or no pay, that is social reproduction (being homemakers) - Capitalists profit from the hard work of women even more then they profit from men, because women belong to an easily replaced ‘reserve army’ of workers (superfluous secondary workers, depending on economy)] - Men occupy higher paid jobs than women FEMINIST THEORY AND PAID/UNPAID WORK - Families, intimate relationships, and households have undergone rapid change in past several decades - Greater diversity today in Canadian families - Some social problems impact all families Caregiving/needs of aging population Economic security of families Impact of new technologies on families Impact of New Technologies on Families: - Parenting has become complicated due to new technologies  - RISKS of technology: sextortion, cyberbullying, online predators, romance scams Diverse Family Problems: - Single parents families - Skip generation families (grandparents raising children, primarily grandmothers) - LGBTQ Families - Families with disabled child CAN WOMEN ‘HAVE IT ALL’?? - Research indicates women are happiest when they have both a career and children - Interviewed large demographic of different women; found women just want ability of CHOICE - Professional women in 50s less likely to be married then non professional women/men Found men in their age demographic prefer much younger women - Many professional positions require more than 40 hour workweeks - Leaving work to raise children often has a penalty - The second shift (women expected to do the housework post shift) - emphasis on building careers early leads women to delay childbirth (decrease fertility) Societal Failures?? Feminist Failures? Women disproportionately face challenges in workplace: - Harassment in workplace - Age discrimination - Appearance discrimination - Maternity leave policy - ‘Second Shift’ LIBERAL FEMINISTS WERE WRONG: Believed that as long as the laws were in place that would allow women the same opportunities as men, they could succeed equally. FALSE “Have it All” women not being honest about the cost (lots of studies show women with both career/family are the most miserable) GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL ECONOMY Globalization: Integration on a world scale of economic/political/social/cultural activities - Has existed for hundreds of years, however pace increased in 19th century - Trend of increasing interdependence among the economies/societies of the world - Spread and diffusion of ideas, norms, values, technologies CONSEQUENCES: - International division of labour - Xenophobic attitudes towards foreign workers ‘stealing’ local jobs - Backlash against globalization (EX: Brexit) Historical origins of globalization dating to at least Ancient Greece GLOBALIZATION may increase economic inequality between and within nations REASON: - Multinational companies outsource production to foreign countries with cheap labour - Buy out local businesses, then majority of profits are usually repatriated towards companies home countries Canada only country in North America with ‘moderate inequality’ (US has high inequality) Inequality around the world INCREASING COUNTER ARGUMENTS: - Globalization may generate meaningful employment opportunities for citizens in developing countries in some circumstances CONSEQUENCES OF GLOBALIZATION AND GLOBAL INEQUALITY Social, Political, economic consequences: - Global health crisis (COVID 19; first world countries over ordered vaccines, poor countries unable to get access to vaccine) - Environmental degradation and global warming - Immigration challenges - Crime