Psych Test 2 Review PDF

Lecture 1 - Learning and Adaptation What is Learning? - Process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in behaviour or capabilities (knowing how) Distinguish between - “Knowing how” or learning and “doing” or performance - Measure learning by actual changes in...

Lecture 1 - Learning and Adaptation What is Learning? - Process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in behaviour or capabilities (knowing how) Distinguish between - “Knowing how” or learning and “doing” or performance - Measure learning by actual changes in performance Behaviourism - John Watson and Little Albert - Explained learning solely in terms of directly observable events Ethology - Focused on animal behaviour in natural environments - Focused on functions of behaviour (why do animals behave as they do) Importance of adaptive significance of behaviour - How behaviour influences chances of survival, reproduction Biology, cognitive, culture - Personal adaptation (biological & cognitive) - Involves learning - Changing pathways - Species adaptation (culture) - Involves natural selection - Adaptations passed through genes - Norms and beliefs Culture - Skills, social behaviour, beliefs and preferences - People in different cultures have different skill sets Habituation - Decrease in response strength to a repeated stimulus - Simple form of learning - You habituate to the feeling of your clothing against your skin. That tactile information has been presented continuously with no important consequences so you no longer notice it. If, however, there is a reason to become aware of skins sensations perhaps because of a wasp or mosquito in your vicinity, you suddenly become keenly aware of all the light touches on your skin that a few seconds ago had shown habit Sensitization - Increase in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus - If a loud tone is sounded, an organism will show the startle reflex. They will orient to the sound, their muscle tension increases rapidly and they jump and may vocalise. With repeated presentation of the loud tone, the startle response increases in intensity - Each loud tone elicit a stronger response, that is, you have shown sensitization Classical Conditioning - Associated one stimulus with another (raising your hand when asked a question in class) - Associating two stimuli (eg. a song and a pleasant event), Such that one stimulus (the song) comes to produce a response (feeling happy) that originally was produced only by the other stimulus (the pleasurable event) - Learned from positive reinforcement Pavlov - Studied salivary response in dogs - Is a natural response - no learning involved - Noted dogs salivated at sounds (tone) Learn to associate two stimuli - One stimulus elicits a response that was originally elicited only by the other stimulus - Opening a bag elicits a response that was originally elicited only by getting food Acquisition - Period during which association is being learned 4 outcomes - Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - Food - Unconditioned response (UCR) - Salivating - Conditioned stimulus (CS) - Associated opening bag with food - Conditioned response (CR) - Salivating Types of CS - UCS pairings - Forward short delay - CS still present when UCS presented - Optimal learning - Forward trace - CS appears & then goes off - Best if delay is no more than 2-3 seconds - Simultaneous - Presented at same time - Learning is slower - Backwards - Presented afterward - Little learning Factors that enhance acquisition - Multiple CS-UCS pairings - Intense, aversive UCS can produce one-trial learning - Forward (short delay) pairing - Time interval between onset of CS and onset of UCS is short Extinction - Process in which CS is presented in absence of UCS - Causes CR to weaken and eventually disappear - When Pavlov repeatedly presented the tone without the food, the dogs eventually stop salivating to the tone Spontaneous recovery - After a rest period, reappearance of previously extinguished CR - Usually weaker than initial CR Generalization - Stimuli similar to initial CS elicit a CR - An animal that ignores the sound of wrestling bushes and then is attacked by a hidden predator will become alarmed by the sound of a rustling bush in the future  - The animal develops an alarm response to a range of rustling sounds Discrimination - CR (such as an alarm reaction) occurs to one stimulus (a sound) but not to another - Weaker responses as stimuli because less similar Exposure therapy - Extinction of CR through exposure to CS without presence of UCS - The goal is to expose the phobic patient to the feared stimulus (CS) without any UCS allowing extinction to occur Systematic desensitization - Muscular relaxation paired with gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimulus Flooding - Exposure to fearful stimulus VR exposure therapy - Effective for phobias Attraction - positive, negative attitudes - Conditioned aversions - Dislike a certain food/drink because you became sick - Anticipatory nausea and vomiting - Common among cancer patients Thorndike's law of effect - Response followed by a ‘satisfying’ consequences is more likely to occur - Response followed by ‘unsatisfying’ outcome is less likely to occur - Doing things not just elicit but with will (instrumental) Operant Conditioning Skinner - Operant conditioning facilities personal adaptation reinforcement - A lever on one wall is positioned above a small cup, and a food pallet automatically drops into the cup whenever a rat presses the lever Reinforcement - Response strengthened by outcome that follows - Food pellets are reinforcers because they increase the rats frequency of lever pressing the rack keeps pressing the lever because it continues to receive food - Once it response becomes established reinforcers maintenance Punishment - Response weakened by outcome that follows - Instead of the rat pressing the lever to receive food. Pressing it delivers a one second electric shock - If lever pressing decreases, then the electric shock represents a punisher, The consequence that weakens the behaviour Skinner's analysis of operant behaviour A) Antecedents of behaviour - stimuli that are present before s behaviour occurs B) Behaviours - the organism emits C) Consequences that follow behaviour - follow the behaviour If A is present, and B is emitted, then C will occur - If I say ‘sit’ and my dog sits, then it gets a tasty treat Classical and operant conditioning Classical  - Behaviour changes due to association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior to the response (CR) - Focuses on elicited behaviour - Conditioned response is triggered involuntarily, almost like a reflex, by a stimulus that precedes it Operant - Behaviour changes as a result of consequences that follow it - Focuses on emitted behaviour - In a given situation the organism generates responses that are under its physical control Consequences Positive reinforcement - Response is strengthened by presentation of a stimulus that follows it Primary reinforcers - Stimuli that are reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs (food, drink) Secondary reinforcers - Acquire reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers (money, praise) Negative reinforcement - Response strengthened by removal (or avoidance) of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcer) - Avoid or remove something unpleasant - Taking aspirin to relieve a headache Operant extinction - Weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced - Good alternative to punishment - Resistance to extinction influenced by pattern of reinforcement that has maintained behaviour - Ex. if taking an aspirin no longer relieves your headaches, you will stop taking aspirin Positive punishment - Aversive punishment Response weakened by subsequent presentation of a stimulus - Ie. spanking or scolding - The pain delivered makes it less likely for that person to misbehave Negative punishment - Response cost (take away something) Response weakened by removal of stimulus - Loss of privileges or money Advantages over positive punishment - Less likely to create strong fear - Does not model aggression Primary Reinforcers - Satisfy biological needs (food, water, praise, social recognition) Secondary/conditioned reinforcers - Becomes reinforcers through association with primary reinforcers (money, stickers paired with praise, grades, performance feedback) Immediate and delayed consequences Immediate - Stronger effect on behaviour Delay of gratification - Involves ability to forgo immediate reward for more satisfying outcome later - Individual variability Shaping and chaining Shaping - Reinforce successive approximations toward a final response chaining Chaining - Reinforce each response with opportunity to perform the next response - Develops a sequence of behaviours Generalization and discrimination Generalization - Operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus or situation similar to the original one - A dog taught to ‘sit’ by its owner will likely start sitting when other people give the command Operant discrimination - Operant response occurs to one antecedent stimulus but not another - We learn to board buses and trains marked by specific symbols (79: express) and avoid otherwise identical vehicles with different symbol (78: local) Stimulus control - Discriminative stimulus influences behaviour - Ex. The sight of a police car exert stimulus control over most people's driving behaviour Schedules of reinforcement Continuous reinforcement - Every response of a particular type is reinforced  - Ex. Every Tunie deposited in the vending machine results in the delivery of a chosen treat Parietal reinforcement - Only some responses are reinforced - Ratio: - Certain percentage of responses are reinforced (based on number of correct responses) - Ex. quota system- when you meet your quota, you get paid - Interval: - Certain amount of time must elapse between reinforcements (regardless of how many correct responses have occurred) - Ex. receiving hourly wage - Fixed: - Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses or fixed time interval - Variable: - Reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses or passage of time Now combine these Fixed ratio schedule (FR) - Reinforcement given after a fixed number of responses - Ex. Receiving a free coffee after having your loyalty card stamped 10 times Variable ratio schedule (VR) - Reinforcement after completing a changing number of responses - Ex. A variable and unpredictable number of responses needs to occur before the slot machine pays off Fixed interval schedule (FI) - Reinforcement is available after a constant length of time - Ex. Receiving an hourly wage Variable interval schedule (VI) - Reinforcement is available after a changing length of time - Ex. Email messages arrived at scattered and unpredictable times throughout the day Learning and extinction Continuous reinforcement - More rapid learning as well as extinction - Consequences easier to perceive Partial reinforcement - Slower learning - More resistant to extinction - especially on VR schedule Gambling - Gambling is reinforced on a VR schedule - Do not know which response will be reinforced. Could always be the next one - Difficulty to distinguish Escape and avoidance Escape conditioning - Learn responses to terminate aversive stimuli - Taking two aspirin is negatively reinforced by the reduction of headache pain; you escape the pain Avoidance conditioning  - Learn responses to avoid aversive stimuli - If you put on your sweater before going outside and this prevents you from feeling cold at all, this is avoidance learning Two factor theory of avoidance - Both classical and operant conditioning Association between 2 stimuli develops - Classical conditioning Negative reinforcement maintains avoidance response - Operant conditioning Amygdala - Visual presentation of fearful event increased activity in right amygdala - Also have lower frontal cortex activity PTSD - Increased activity in right amygdala with decreased frontal cortex activity Education and workplace - Teaching machines (skinner) & computer assisted instructions - Immediate feedback - Self-paced learning Token economies - Desired behaviour reinforced with tokens, exchangeable for rewards - Gold star in exchange for a prize or recreational time Biology and learning Biological preparedness - Biologically prewired to learn behaviours related to survival - Behaviours contrary to natural tendencies slowly learned - if at all Fear certain things? - Are we biologically prepared to fear certain things? - Most phobias develop for things that have evolutionary significance - Snakes, spiders, dangerous places - Few phobias for harmful elements - Guns, knives, etc Constraints Instinctive drifts - Conditioned response ‘drifts back’ toward instinctive behaviour - Ex. Raccoons receive tokens they were to deposit in a piggy bank. rather than dropping the tokens into the bank they kept rubbing the tokens together and action raccoons naturally performed with food that has a hard show - These behaviours are so deeply rooted in the animals evolutionary history that they simply overrule the conditioning procedure Learning and the brain - Nucleus accumbens and dopamine involved in ability to experience reward - Enriched environments produce more dendrites and synapses - There is no single part of the brain that ‘controls’ learning Lecture 2 - Motivation and Emotion Motivation - Any influence that triggers, directs, or maintains behaviour  - Individual differences - Organizational context - Manage behaviours - Process theories Content Theories - Explains why people have different needs at different times Practical implications of content theories - People have different needs at different times - Offer employers a choice of reward - a flexible reward system - Do not rely too heavily on financial reward - They mainly address lower level needs Maslow's Hierarchy - Each individual has needs, or feelings of deficiency that drive their behaviour - Once a need is satisfied, then it is no longer motivating - Needs are in a hierarchy that an individual moves up on as they satisfy levels of needs Hierarchy of needs 1. Self actualization - discovering your inner purpose, self fulfillment 2. Esteem - self respect, achievement, recognition 3. Affiliation - belonging, friendship, emotional need 4. Security - safety, absence of pain, threat, or illness 5. Physiological - food, water, air, shelter Alderfer's ERG - Consolidates Maslow into 3 categories - Existence - physiological and security - Relatedness - affiliation - Growth - esteem and self actualization ERG model Frustration - Regression - Differs from Maslow  - When unable to satisfy upper level needs, the individual will revert to satisfying lower level needs - Growth stimulates growth McClelland’s Learned Needs - Needs are acquired through interaction with environment - NOT A HIERARCHY, but degrees of each type of need or motive Types of needs - Need for Achievement: motive to meet some standard of excellence or to complete - Need for Affiliation: motive to develop and maintain close and meaningful relationships - Need for Power: desire to influence and control others and the environment Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory - Some variable prevent task dissatisfaction and some variables produce motivation - With satisfied hygiene comes motivation - Hygiene factors - basic needs that will prevent dissatisfaction - Light, temperature, pay, parking - Motivators - When present cause high levels of motivation - Interesting work, advancement growth, etc Process theories - Describe the processes through which needs are translated into behaviour Types of Process Theories - Reinforcement theory - Expectancy - Equity - Goal setting Reinforcement Theory - Behaviours are functions of consequences that they produce - If a behaviour is followed by a pleasant experience it will be repeated - In order to change behaviours the consequences must be changed Types of reinforcement - Positive reinforcement - rewards - Punishment - application of a negative outcome - Negative reinforcement - removal of negative outcomes when behaviour is performed Types of rewards - Extrinsic - external rewards such as money, benefits, job security - Intrinsic - internal satisfaction outcomes from doing work - Satisfaction - employees attitude about work situations Equity Theory - Individuals try to find a balance between their inputs and outputs relative to referent others - However, a referent other is not always present Results of inequity - Equity: I am being treated fairly - Under rewarded - will look to increase rewards, or decrease inputs to match rewards - Over rewarded - will change referent to match cognitions or increase input - Leaving and distortion Goal Setting Theory - Assignment of specific, moderately difficult, and providing feedback will provide motivation to work - Employee participation - Receive rewards - Provide competencies for achievement Expectancy Theory - Combines goal setting and reinforcement theories - Three questions can drive motivation - With effort can I perform? - With performance, will I be rewarded? - Do I value the reward? Terms - Expectancy: belief that effort will lead to performance - Instrumentality: performance leads to rewards (does performance level matter) - Valence: value of rewards Brain and Emotions - Autonomic nervous system (ANS): neural system that connects brain with internal organs and glands  - Sympathetic branch: part of the ANS that activates body for emergency action - Fight or flight - Parasympathetic branch: part of the ANS that quiets body and conserves energy Sudden death - After strong emotional shock, sympathetic system becomes too active - Results in excessive stress - After shock, parasympathetic system overreacts - Lowers blood pressure too much - Slows heart to a stop Theories of Emotion James Lange Theory - Emotional feelings follow bodily arousal and come from awareness of such arousal Cannon Bard Theory - The thalamus (in brain) causes emotional feelings and bodily arousal to occur at the same time Schachter’s Cognitive Theory (BEST UNDERSTANDING) - Emotions occur when a label is applied to general physical arousal A modern view of emotion - Each of these theories has some truth, so can we combine them in a way that makes sense