Copy of Preliminary Agriculture Outcomes PDF

Unit 1 Experimental Design and Research Term 1 2 Weeks Elements of experimental design Validity - how well the experiment answers the aim Accuracy - how close to the true value the results are Precision - how consistent the results are Reliability - how well the same results can be found by repeati...

Unit 1 Experimental Design and Research Term 1 2 Weeks Elements of experimental design Validity - how well the experiment answers the aim Accuracy - how close to the true value the results are Precision - how consistent the results are Reliability - how well the same results can be found by repeating the experiment Control - standard condition against which the experimental data will be compared to Randomisation - assigning subjects or experimental units using random methods Replication - repeating the experiment multiple times, or having multiple subjects in each experimental group Standardisation of conditions - keeping all variables, except for independent variable, the same across all experimental groups Unit 2 Overview of agriculture Term 1 4 Weeks Agriculture as a system Interaction between individual enterprises 1. Subsystems - enterprises on a farm 2. Inputs - materials needed to produce saleable products from an enterprise 3. Processes - 'stages' that support the inputs becoming saleable products (outputs) 4. Outputs - final saleable products 5. Boundaries - physical or financial limitations on an enterprise 6. Monitoring - collects information about the outputs of an enterprise 7. Feedback - information gathered from Monitoring is used to aid decisions made by the farm manager 8. Interactions Model of a farm system - orange orchards ⭐ Distribution of agricultural regions in NSW Central/south coastal zone North coastal zone Eastern scarplands Southern/northern tablelands Western slopes Western plains Factors that impact agricultural systems Factor Impact on Agriculture Physical Temperature: Frost kills plants (e.g. beans) (temperature, rainfall, soil - Frost resistant species need to be planted (e.g. structure) cauliflower) Rainfall: Some soils can be waterlogged Soil is condensed and air pockets disappear, drowning the plants Biological e.g. Rhizobium bacteria converts atmospheric nitrogen into (pest, diseases, beneficial a form of nitrogen usable by plants organisms) - symbiotic (both organisms benefit) relationship with legume plants - see Unit 4 Social Farmers, chemical companies, machinery companies and retail outlets Create jobs for thousands -> reduces unemployment Historical e.g. Before, arsenic-based chemicals prevent sheep blowfly (machinery, farm structure, strike what enterprises are being - Applied using a dip -> area used for dips now ran, historical land contaminated with arsenic management strats) - Contaminated soils fenced off from livestock & cannot be used for cropping Economic Over the past 50 years, the cost of inputs (to make outputs) (demand + supply -> costs) has risen by 1200%. Over the same period of time, the price farmers receive for farm outputs has only risen 200%. This is known as “The Cost-Price Squeeze”. Traditional family farms Family farms - owned and operated by family management decisions made by family 95% of Australian farms ○ number of farming families decreased, size of farms increased Cost Price Squeeze causes farmers to seek off-farm employment Corporate farms - large scale and owned or influenced by large companies increasing number of corporate farms: 5% of all farms occupy 25% of total farmland owned by group of stakeholders, who employ a farm manager to make decisions contract farming - legally binding contract between companies and farmers in the food and fibre production chain (e.g. suppliers to Macdonald's for lettuce, tomatoes) ⭐ Impact of agriculture on local rural communities Economic impact ○ Provides employment on a permanent or casual (seasonal) basis ○ Provides tourism benefits e.g. farm stays, pick your own produce ○ Farmers and families purchase goods and services from the local community, aiding business in town Environmental impact ○ Some agricultural enterprises (e.g. piggeries, dairies) produce unpleasant odours Not a threat, but annoying ○ Chemicals may pollute waterways -> water unsuitable for irrigation or livestock drinking water and may impact the use of the waterway for recreation eg. fishing ○ Dust can cause allergies and respiratory irritation in humans Sources of dust include cultivation of soil, harvesting of crops and mustering of livestock ○ Agricultural activities may occur at night and early in the morning, which can keep people awake E.g. nighttime harvesting of grapes and bird-scaring devices Aboriginal farming practices 1. Firestick farming ○ Controlled burns to manage the landscape ○ Helped to promote the growth of certain plants, maintain open grasslands, reduce the risk of larger, uncontrolled bushfires, and aid in hunting by flushing out animals 2. Seasonal mobility ○ Moved across their traditional lands according to seasonal cycles. ○ Prevented overuse of any single area ○ Allowed ecosystems time to regenerate 3. Totemic systems and sacred sites ○ Some places were designated as sacred and were protected from overuse ○ Linked people to particular animals, plants, and landscapes -> sustainable use and conservation 4. Aquaculture ○ Developed sophisticated fish traps and aquaculture systems (e.g. those found at Brewarrina in NSW) ○ Allowed for sustainable harvesting of fish and other aquatic resources  James Ruse Agricultural High School Agriculture Programme PRELIMINARY HSC 2 Unit Course Unit 3 Farm Case Study - School Farm - Prime Lambs Term 2 4 Weeks Enterprises on the school farm ⭐ Prime lamb (Merino ewes x Border Leceister ram) x Poll Dorset terminal sire Fast growth rate, excellent carcass traits Born in July, grown to 30-35 kg before auction through loyal saleyards Angus stud Self-replacing herd of purebred Angus Bulls are purchased based on genetic traits (growth rate, calving ease, temperament) Sold at 300-350 kg to feeder market, 420 kg live weight through auction Free range eggs HYSEX Brown High production all year -> not impacted by changing day lengths in seasons Collected daily, $5 per carton Broiler production 4 batches of 60 Cobb 500 -> excellent Feed Conversion Efficiency Reach 2-2.5 kg in 6 weeks (30% of body weight lost in processing) Carcass is sold at $10 each ($5/kg) Peaches Sherman's Red Value added through turning it into a jam or sorbet Washington navel oranges Seedless, harvested in June Pick your own at $2/kg Hydroponic vegetables 400 seasonal leafy vegetables per term $2 a bunch Sweet corn Summer crop Disease resistance variety used to limit chemical use Topped and tailed, then sold at $1 each Honey Managed by Parramatta Beekeepers Association Harvested in summer -> packaged and sold in 1kg tubs, 500g jars ⭐ Resources on the JR farm Topography Resides on an undulating, north facing block Provides good drainage -> important for orchard Fertilisers and pesticides must not make their way into the creeks and stormwater drains support soil structure, vegetative cover, controlling internal parasites in stock The following species are sown into existing pasture (using a direct drill method):  Summer species Winter species Legume Lucerne White clover Grass Kikuyu Perennial ryegrass Native Kangaroo grass Wallaby grass ⭐ Calendar of Operations 2024 - First Cross Ewe Flock January February - joining March April - end of joining May - supplementary feeding of the ewes (if required) with lucerne hay June - vaccinate ewes and ram (annual booster), supplementary feeding of the ewes (if required) with lucerne hay July - supplementary feeding of the ewes (if required) with lucerne hay, lambing begins August - supplementary feeding of the ewes (if required) with lucerne hay, lambing continues September - lambing ends, lamb marking - including tail docking, vaccination (5-in-1 vaccine), castration (cryptorchid) October - vaccinate lambs (booster injection) (5-in-1 vaccine) November December - sell lambs (liveweight 30-35 kg) at Camden Saleyards Shearing, performed by contractor Activities done during the year Foot/hoof paring General health checks - are carried out to ensure sheep are in good health Drench - Early November, Late December, and Early February (only if it is necessary) ○ alternating between Ivomec (a Broad Spectrum drench) and a Narrow Spectrum drench for Barber's Pole worm and other roundworms ○ particular attention is given to sheep after lambing sheep are more susceptible to roundworms Weigh lambs periodically (monthly) to determine growth rate and when they have reached market weight (30-35 kg) Marketing options 1. Value adding 2. Paddock/private sale 3. Forward contract 4. Auction Plus (online) Managing risks on farms 1. Identify risk 2. Assess the risk 3. Manage or reduce the risk 4. Review the effectiveness of step 3. 5. Keep a record (by checklist or photographs) of what you've done to keep the farm safe. ⭐ Environmental sustainability management practices Reduced chemical usage Pros: - Reduced chemical runoff, which can cause pollution in nearby waterways and soil - Reduced soil degradation - No genetic resistance from pests Cons: - Organic fertilisers and pesticides are not as effective as chemical versions - Reduced effectiveness of pest control - More expensive to produce crops - Lower (comparatively) yield of crops Judgement: Although it can increase sustainability of farm through reducing water and soil degradation, it is more costly and not as effective as using more chemicals. Therefore, chemicals rule!!! Mulching Pros: - Suppresses weed growth and helps soil retain moisture - Provides nutrients and encourages beneficial soil organisms and worm activity Cons: - Over-mulching can bury and suffocate plants - Mulch provides a convenient hiding place for pests - Bake your plants with excess heat if done incorrectly Judgement: - Overall, a sustainable method, however care must be taken when mulching to ensure it is done properly for maximum efficiency. Instruments used to measure climate Effective rainfall When precipitation is greater than or equal to evaporation/2 Growing season The months that have consecutive rainfall Components of weather Description Weather Instruments Temperature How hot or cold the air is Thermometer Atmospheric Pressure Weight of the atmosphere Barometer overhead. Changes in atmospheric pressure signal shifts in the weather. Wind Movement of air, caused Wind vane or weather by differences in vane - direction of the atmospheric pressure. wind - Wind direction Anemometer - measure - Wind speed wind speed Humidity Amount of water vapour Hygrometer or in the air wet-and-dry bulb thermometer - Determine chances of precipitation Precipitation Falling water (rain, snow, Rain gauge (amount of sleet or hail) rain) Evaporation Amount of water leaving Evaporimeter the plants and ground. ⭐ Temperature - Each species has an optimal temperature range - In plant production, rising or dropping below the range will reduce rate of photosynthesis -> reducing growth rate and yield Precipitation and evaporation Too much or too little precipitation is harmful ○ Drought - kill crops, reduce water available to livestock ○ Overly wet - cause fungal growth in plants, foot problems in livestock Amount of water remaining in soil indicates effectiveness of rainfall ○ Evaporation allows animal's body to cool ⭐ Wind speed Humidity High humidity reduces livestock's ability to use evaporation to dissipate heat ⭐ Constituents of soil name of particle diameter (mm) gravel >2 coarse sand 2-0.2 fine sane 0.2-0.02 silt 0.02-0.002 clay (colloid) growth of the animal becomes limited or restricted a. Starving at an early stage of the animal’s life b. Malnutrition, so bone growth may continue at the expense of muscle and fat, leading to the development of an animal with large legs and head but a small body 2. Compensatory growth - accelerated growth of animals following periods of nutritional restriction a. After feed restriction, animal uses its feed for growth more efficiently (increased appetite) 3. Body composition - ideal carcass = maximum amount of muscle, an optimum amount of fat, minimum amount of bone a. Breed - carcasses of dairy breeds are leaner than beef b. Sex - females fatter than castrated males, which are fatter than entire males c. Nutrition - growth restricted with inadequate feed: fat is the most affected, followed by muscle and then bone 4. Hormones and growth a. Growth hormone - growth of bone and muscle, breakdown of fat  b. Insulin - increases the growth of bone and muscle tissue, is involved in the formation of fatty tissue c. Thyroid - regulation of energy metabolism and metabolic rate d. Sex hormones i. testosterone (male) - increases formation of muscle protein and bone growth ii. oestrogen (female) - inhibits bone growth, which is why female animals are smaller than male animals 5. Genotype - genetics sets upper limit to growth rate and development a. Early maturing - reaches mature shape and develops tissue earlier; can be sold earlier; cost of feeding will be lower compared to late-maturing breeds 4 external factors affecting growth 1. Nutrition - amount of quality of feed available to the animal a. Supplements given when nutrition is inadequate 2. Climate a. Extremes in climate may affect growth b. Hot weather - animal may stop grazing c. Cold, windy weather - animal use energy to keep warm 3. Disease a. Stunts growth, impacts muscle building and mass b. Hinders immune system & body's function to continue growth c. Prevented by vaccination, medication, or drenching 4. Stress a. Reduce by adjusting stocking rate b. Use appropriate husbandry practices Growth & development terms Word or phrase Definition Sentence using the word Development Changes in the proportion of The development of the animal various body parts of the body is progressing at a satisfactory rate. Lactations The secretion of milk to feed a The mother is lactating. baby animal Stocking rate The number of animals per unit The stocking rate of the llamas area of land was incredibly high. Infertile animals Animals that fail to reproduce An egg that we eat is infertile because it has no animal. Fertile animals Animals that reproduce That poor heifer that they keep efficiently locking in with Mozart is extremely fertile. A measure of productivity in The number of eggs laid per hen Yes. poultry per year Postnatal growth Growth that occurs after birth I am currently undergoing postnatal growth as I have already been born. Prenatal growth Growth that occurs before birth I am not undergoing prenatal birth Growth An increase in the size and Unfortunately, my height weight of the animal indicates a concerning lack of growth. To maintain welfare of animals, perform the following: - dehorning - drenching - vaccination - yard and milking shed design  Pest and diseases Mastitis in cows - Cause: Bacterial Infection (Mastitis is the inflammation of the udder) - Symptoms: - loss in milk production, infected udder is swollen and sore, milk contains pus (in simpler cases, mastitis may appear as a few clots of pus in the milk) - Spread by/exacerbated by: - Lack of cleanliness in the dairy - Dirty milking cups - Muddy yard - Poor milking techniques -> damage cow’s udder leading to infection - Reflected by a high somatic cell count (SCC) - Cost of mastitis - Reduced production - Reduced butter fat = reduced milk quality - High treatment costs - Lost production from infected cows Advantages Disadvantages Judgement Antibiotic Effectively treats Very costly, alive cow not Effective, but feasibility treatment mastitis in affected always worth money spent depends on cost of individual labour, medicine, and High maintenance, value of possible loss requires constant human supervision Cleaning teats Prevents bacterial Not always effective in A simple method to with iodine spray infection before it prevention prevent mastitis. occurs Cheaper to ensure that Costly cows don't get infection than get treated Hosing out muddy Simplest prevention Requires high maintenance It is overall a simple, yards method for entire cheap and effective population method that is worth the high maintenance. Low cost Culling cows with Quickly removes cow Loss of animal - high loss Good, effective method faults on the with mastitis for preventing milk udder or chronic contamination if mastitis Removes need to care antibiotic treatment for affected cow costs less than the loss of a cow's value Buffalo fly for cattle - Small biting fly, feeds off cattle and causes irritation which can result in reduced production - Resting or feeding on cattle, leave when disturbed or feeding - Lay eggs in fresh manure - 3.5 – 4 mm long - Lifecycle in - Introduced to Australia in 1825 via a shipment of Buffalo Symptoms - Sores in inner corners of cattle's eyes (lesions) - Cattle scratch and rub themselves constantly - Head tosses - Violent tail flicks - Reduced production Spread by - Warm, moist conditions favour spread - Dark coats, poor conditions, older bulls attract heavier infestations Control Methods Advantages Disadvantages Judgement Pour-on Blackline Relatively fast, easy, Repeat treatments may Good for quick treatment and safe be required treatment, but not (chemical control) recommended for over a Ready to use, do not May be toxic to dung long period of time, as need to be diluted beetles some chemicals are toxic to animals and repeat Some also treat for Coverage of certain body treatments are costly other parasites parts may be insufficient (e.g. udder, under legs) Some chemicals are toxic to animal Costly Dung Beetles Good for the Requires specific Very effective, but (biological control) environment (low environment difficult to implement at impact) (e.g. temperature, low the beginning, in general Encourages pasture rainfall, soil type) a good long-term control growth Dry periods reduce method numbers Buffalo Fly Traps Removes 80% of Daily use needed until Effective when used (physical control) buffalo flies each time fly control is achieved consistently, can be easy cattle pass through to implement but costly Initially costly initially Cattle can be trained to use them before buffalo fly season Rumen (beneficial) - Symbiotic relationship between animal and microbes - Bacteria, protozoa and fungi - Increasing the production of microbes in the rumen is the key to lifting milk production and composition. - The microbes break down feed to produce volatile fatty acids, which are used by the cow as energy for maintenance and milk production. - The rumen microbes are also digested and absorbed in the small intestine of the dairy cow as the main protein source for milk production— providing up to 70–90% of a cow’s protein requirements. - Fungi, bacteria and protozoa are the three different types of microbes produced in the rumen. - Different microbes have different digestive roles. - There are two main groups of rumen microbes: the slow-working fibre-digesters located on the fibre mat in the rumen, and the fast-working microbes that float around in the rumen fluid, looking for easily-digested nutrients like sugars and starches. good link: The vital role of rumen microbes-Technical note 1 Lactation - Secretion of milk to supply young with nutrients for survival and growth - Final event in reproduction in mammals How do farmers keep their animals lactating? - Manipulate the reproductive system - Aims for each cow to produce a calf every 12 months - Pregnancy period for cattle is 9 months -> 1-2 months before birth, cow is not milked (dried off) - Allows cow body reserves to build up -> healthy calf + high milk yield Parts of an udder Milk produced in 4 mammary glands Ligaments hold and attach udder to body ○ Strong ligaments hold udder up against abdomen ○ Weak ligament causes udder to sag -> udder damage + higher chance of disease 1. Milk made in glands called alveoli 2. Milk from each alveolus empties into fine ducts into larger ducts (lactiferous ducts) 3. Milk is emptied into giant cistern (a large cavity) Milk letdown Milk inside mammary glands made available for withdrawal Involves nervous system, circulatory system, glands and hormones ○ Requires neural stimulation through milking procedures ○ Oxytocin then produced, ○ Causing myoepithelial cells surrounding alveoli to contract, ○ Forcing milk into lactiferous ducts  ❖ Cows in dairies are milked 3 times a day to increase production ❖ Increased stimulation from milking often -> increases oxytocin (encouraging milk letdown) Oestrogen: stimulates udder growth Prolactin: stimulates the alveolar cells Oxytocin: milk letdown Milk secretion - Synthesis of milk and its passage - Milk is formed by a chemical process that occurs within the cells of the alveolar epithelium. The blood carries nutrients that are necessary for the formation of milk. Parts of milk Constituents of milk (lactose, proteins, facts) are made by the alveolar cells from nutrient raw materials in the blood Diffusion of nutrients into alveoli Some nutrients (calcium, phosphorus and minerals) pass and are unchanged in the milk Colostrum & importance - Colostrum is a substance secreted by the mammary gland in late pregnancy and for the first few days after birth. The components found in colostrum are important for the survival of the newborn animal for the first few days of life. - Cow’s colostrum contains more dry matter, mineral salts and protein and fewer minerals than mature milk. - Cow’s colostrum also contains higher concentrations of certain immunoglobulins, Vitamin A and D. The immunoglobulins, which are proteina, contain antibodies.  Animal welfare Requirements for welfare of cattle: A level of nutrition adequate to sustain good health and vigour Access to sufficient water of suitable quality to meet psychological needs Social contact with other cattle; but with sufficient space to stand, to lie down and stretch their limbs Protection from predation Protection from pain, injury and disease Protection from extremes of weather which may be life threatening Provision of reasonable precautions against effect of natural disasters Handling facilities which under normal usage do not cause injury ○ Minimise stress to cattle BASIC WELFARE REQUIREMENT MANAGEMENT OPERATION(S) to help meet the requirement Adequate levels of nutrition Provide with feed at levels consistent with their wellbeing Consideration given to animal’s age, bodyweight, and extra nutritional demands associated with growth, pregnancy, lactation, exercise and climatic extremes If feed provided in a form the cattle are not accustomed to, appropriate measures should be used to encourage them to eat ○ Provision of an alternative feed or introduction of confident feeders should be implemented  ○ Changes to diet should be introduced gradually Cattle may require mineral supplementation Quantity and quality of water Healthy cattle should not be deprived of access to water for periods longer than 24 hours Sufficient water must be provided according to age, bodyweight, production level, air temperature, humidity and dry matter content of the feed eaten Social contact Cattle adapt to the familiar surroundings in which they live, including other cattle Crowding from unfamiliar cows can stress out animals However, solitary cows may be able to adapt to the solitude given that the other welfare needs are met Protection from predation Shelters (e.g. windbreaks) and additional fodder should be provided at times of cold stress, the effects of which are exacerbated by wind chill and wetting of the coat – calves are particularly at risk Protection from pain, injury and Medication to protection against diseases e.g. disease drenching, vaccinations must be provided Proper treatment of injuries and pain relief for painful processes, e.g. mulesing and dehorning Protection from extremes of Favourable environment for raising cattle weather Shelter (e.g. windbreaks) Additional fodder should be provided at times of cold stress (especially with wind chill and wetting of coat) Precautions against the effects of Plans should be made and reasonable steps taken natural disasters In areas subject to flooding, careful paddock and facility design is necessary to allow access to safe high ground or to plan for stock evacuation to high ground Adequate fire-breaks must be maintained Cattle must be attended to after a natural disaster ○ Animals should be assessed by a competent person ○ Immediate treatment or humane destruction may be required depending on the animal’s condition Handling facilities A competent stockperson ○ Handle cattle with minimum stress, utilise their natural behaviour, recognise early signs of disease or distress, initiate prompt remedial actions  Castration and dehorning Invasive animal husbandry practices Castration Dehorning Why is the practice Makes sex organs shrink and Reduces the damage that the necessary? stop functioning horns can inflict on the ○ Ending sperm equipment and other cows production and Harder to handle cows with ovulation horns ○ Ending sexual Bruising can make the quality interest and and price of the meat behaviour – makes it easier to handle the Prevents unwanted breeding, to make handling easier Improves meat quality ○ Enhances marbling and tenderness Make management and handling easier and safer Animal welfare risks Cause pain, stress and Pain, uncontrolled bleeding, fly associated with inflammation, risk infection, infestation and bacterial practice and discomfort infection Neutered individuals are ○ Traumatic experience much more likely to develop for the cattle prostate problems No laws requiring them to Depression, impotence, receive pain relief obesity, osteoporosis Process of the practice Elastic band castration The cattle, at the age of up to Cuts off blood supply to two months old, are held in a testicles cattle cradle. Testicles and scrotum will Dehorning should be done fall from body before the horn hits the skull to The younger the cow, the reduce pain and infection less likely for their injury to be infected Local anaesthesia can be injected to reduce acute pain  After the procedure, heat cauterising of the wound is done to reduce bleeding. Wound dressing powder is a sufficient treatment to reduce bleeding and act as a fly repellent. Sustainable management practices Grazing Management: 1. Description: domestic livestock allowed outside to consume wild vegetation 2. Benefits: a. Pasture i. Less waste of land – allows for controlled using of resources available 1. Reduces uneven grazing ii. Simple and low cost iii. Reducing amount of fertiliser needed for feed to grow iv. Helping recycle nutrients v. Building healthy soil through vigorous vegetation growth vi. Helps control weeds and pests b. Livestock i. Easier to control livestock → too few or too many livestock results in difficulty managing livestock. ii. Animals have access to good nutrition Stocking Rate: 1. Description: refers to the number of livestock on a paddock or a whole farm and is expressed as an indication of the number of a particular type of animal per unit area.  2. Benefits: a. Depends on the nature of the enterprise b. High utilisation of the pasture grown c. Long term sustainability of the pasture d. Remains weed-free e. Sufficient ground cover f. Reduces erosion g. Requires careful management Identifying the stocking rate and stocking density that an enterprise can sustain to maximise green pasture utilisation is important in increasing the profitability of an enterprise The number of animals will depend on the nature of the enterprise (breeding and/or trading) but should be sufficient to ensure high utilisation of the pasture grown while maintaining the long-term sustainability of the pasture and the grazing system. Native Vegetation: - Supports lands holders in trying to improve biodiversity and productivity on their land - Salinity and biodiversity - Restoring native vegetation to bring biodiversity and balance back into the land - Reducing erosion by restoring barren land - Encourages the presence of native wildlife as well - Regenerative grazing operation Dairy effluent management Dairy effluent considered to pollute waterways -> degradation of environment http://www.dairyingfortomorrow.com.au/tackling-specific-issues/effluent/ Legal requirements for dairy effluent management State and industry legislation, codes of practices, guidelines, planning provisions Fundamental principles of managing effluent: 1. Must be contained and reused (e.g. spread onto pastures/crops). 2. Must not enter surface waters (e.g. lakes, springs, rivers). 3. Runoff must not leave the property boundary. 4. Must not enter ground waters directly/through infiltration. 5. Must not contaminate land -> avoid nutrient overload 6. Offensive odours must not impact beyond property boundaries. Methods to achieve principles: 1. Physical and chemical treatment a. Use coarse screening equipment & sediment traps i. 💩 from pee Separate b. Chemicals make 💩 settle down for land application 2. Biological treatment. a. Anaerobic/aerobic pounds enhance breakdown of volatile organic pollutants b. Pond systems -> manage smells Siting design strategies Pond systems are suitable for effluent treatment where topography and soil conditions favour their installation. Storage siting and soils To build storage, take account for: - soil characteristics - land slope - odour management potential - catchment hydrology - lower permeability clay minimises effluent leaching to groundwater Storage design and sizing Storages should - cater for maximum waste load and future farm expansion - have allowance for any runoff and stormwater Capacity of the management system - Consider possibilities for expansion Treatment capacity can be increased using chemical or microbiological supplements physical pre-treatment processes artificial aeration of ponds anaerobic pre-treatment processes with appropriate controls on gases generated expansion of the pond capacity new wastewater treatment facilities assessment options. These include: - treated dairy shed effluent is being applied to land to minimise by a regular assessment of the condition of the soil, and surface and groundwater  - effective and environmentally sound use of solid dairy shed wastes. - solid components (e.g. gravel, sand, manure) managed and used differently - Regularly assess soil and water when applying treated dairy shed effluent. - Use solid dairy shed wastes effectively and environmentally. - Manage solid components (gravel, sand, manure) differently. - Desludge ponds when sludge is one-third of volume or half depth; typically every 5-12 years. - Return dewatered sludge waters to the pond. - Compost or directly apply manure/sludge; anaerobic pond sludges are nutrient-rich. - Get professional advice for sludge removal and soil application. - Store sludge with bunding and drainage; prevent groundwater contamination. - Prevent sludge from becoming anaerobic to avoid odour and pests. - Include desludging and land application in the Whole Farm Plan. Performance assessment options Indicators: ○ Apply solid dairy shed effluent to land (e.g., irrigating crops, pastures, trees). ○ Monitor crops, trees, and pasture for health and productivity. ○ Minimise impacts on water, land, air, and vegetation with regular soil and water assessments. Objective Dispose of dairy shed effluent in an environmentally acceptable manner when reuse is not feasible. Guidelines No effluent discharge to surface or groundwater unless it meets catchment management strategy and licensing guidelines. Ensure ambient water quality downstream remains within environmental standards. Tertiary treatment or return effluent to evaporative ponds where possible. Compliance with regional catchment plans and licensing guidelines. Regularly assess soil, surface water, groundwater, and odour. Minimise off-site impacts on water, land, air, and vegetation. Reference Documents Effluent and Manure Management Database Australian Water Quality Guidelines Treating Effluent on a Dairy Farm Nutrient-rich effluent from milking parlours needs dilution to prevent eutrophication. Effective management recycles nutrients back to pastures, increasing soil organic matter and reducing fertiliser costs. Current technology eShepherd Virtual fencing, confining or moving animals without using fixed fences Can monitor cattle from devices, and uses GPS ○ Collars communicate with central system to define virtual boundaries on a digital map Control livestock using efficient and ethical delivery of cues and controls ○ Warning beep plays when livestock crosses invisible boundary ○ Followed by a few more warnings ○ If livestock does not heed the warnings, a shock will be delivered