NLM PDF: Controlling, Performance Appraisal, and Discipline

CONTROLLING It is the last step in the management, processes it involves setting standards, measuring performance against those standards, reporting the results and taking corrective actions. Performance appraisal Discipline Behavior Records and reports Quality Assur...

CONTROLLING It is the last step in the management, processes it involves setting standards, measuring performance against those standards, reporting the results and taking corrective actions. Performance appraisal Discipline Behavior Records and reports Quality Assurance TQM PURPOSE OF CONTROLLING To determine job competence To enhance staff development and motivate personnel toward higher accomplishment, To discover the employee's aspiration and to recognize her accomplishment Improve communication between supervisor and staff Improve relationship among nurses Aid supervisor’s counseling and couching Determine developmental needs Select qualified nurses Identify unsatisfactory employees PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL is a periodic formal evaluations of how the nurse has performed her duties during a specific time period. Based on job description Must have representative sampling Provide copy of standard and job description Proper documentation Scheduled evaluation COMMON ERRORS IN EVALUATION 1. Halo error– is the result of allowing one trait to influence the evaluation of other traits or rating all traits on the basis of general impression 2. Horns error– the evaluation is hypercritical 3. Contrast error– is produced by the tendency of rate the nurse opposite from the way she perceives herself. Methods of Evaluation. 1. Anecdotal notes/ reports– are objective description of behavior recorded on plain paper or a form, 2. Checklist- are most useful for tangible variables such as inventory of supplies. 3. Rating scales– locates the behavior at a point on a continuum and notes quantitative abilities, the numerical rating scale should usually include the number against which behaviors are evaluated. 4. Ranking– forces the number to rank staff in descending order from the highest to lowest  5. Management by objective– emphasized the achievement of objectives instead of personality characteristics 6. Peer Review– process whereby a group of practicing registered nurses evaluate quality of another registered nurse's professional performance 7. Appraisal interview- include tell and sell , tell and listen , problem solving and goal setting 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CONTROL SYSTEM 1. Control must reflect the nature the activity 2. Control should report error promptly 3. Controls should be forward looking 4. Controls should be objectives 5. Controls should be flexible 6. Controls should be economical 7. Controls should be understanding CONTROLLING TECHNIQUES 1. Nursing Rounds - an effective controlling technique for nursing manager is planned nursing rounds. 2. Nursing Operating Instructions - nursing operating instructions or policies become standards for evaluation 3. Critical Control Points and Milestones -specific points in the production of goods or services at which the nurse judges whether the objectives are being met 4.Program Evaluation and Review Technique - PERT uses a network of activities each of which is represented as a step on a chart 5. Benchmarking - benchmarking is an offshoot of quality management and is a technique whereby seeks out the best practices in its industry so as to improve its performance. DISCIPLINE - It is a form of self control through which an individual acts in accordance with the institution code of behavior (from employer.) - It is a process of generating employers' compliance with institutional rules and regulations (from supervisor) Principles of Discipline 1. discipline should be administered promptly , privately, thoroughly and consistently. 2. In all but the most serve offenses , discipline should be progressive in nature and should be processed by counseling. Steps in Discipline 1. Counselling 2. Verbal reprimand 3. Written reprimand 4. Short suspension 5. Longer suspension 6. Discharged Disciplinary Conference Short Simple Direct Documented Disciplinary letter – the supervisor should send a letter to the employee immediately after the disciplinary conference, documenting the content of the interview, the letter should follow the outline used by the supervisor in conducting the conference Reasons Why Managers Hesitate to Discipline 1. Lack of management support 2. Letting part of punishment to the behavior go without matter. 3. Rational to avoid disappointment 4. Fear that employee will result to negativity. Assertiveness Behavior which enable’s a person to act in his own best interest , to stand for himself without undue anxiety , to express his honest feelings comfortably or to exercise his own rights without denying the rights of others. Taking an active orientation toward work Being able to get and take criticism and help Dealing with anxiety and fear so as to be able to functions effectively. COMPARATIVE CHART OF BEHAVIOR CHARACTERISTICS Characteristic and affect on self Nonassertive Self denying Inhibited, anxious, and alert Allow others to choose for himself Does not achieved desired goal Aggressive self enhancing at the expense of the other expressive depreciate others Choose for others Achieve desired goal by hurting others Assertive self enhancing Expressive feels good about self Choose for self May achieved desired goal Reasons for lacking assertiveness A need to be nice as taught to us from an early age. A lack of trust in our judgment, A fear of appearing to be aggressive How to develop self assertiveness stand up straight , make eye contact, don’t shuffle your feet, make your facial expression match what you are saying learn to recognize negative phrases don’t decide in advance that things won’t work out trust your intuition, listen to your inner voice. you should know what is right for you focus on your strengths, not your weakness , learn to think well of yourself and those things you do well start with small assertive behavior reward yourself stop judging the correctness of your behavior and that of those around youpractice being assertive by using a mirror and speaking aloud or asking a friend to role play with you ask for what you want directly , honestly and politely even if you don’t feel assertive act as if you do, it gets easier over a period and people will start responding to your confidence. ASSERTIVE TECHNIQUES: include positive and negative information in statement “ I like your plan..but ….. start with the statement I and avoid generalization such as “ we all believe “ express your own beliefs and rights “ I believe that ….. express your thoughts and feelings directly to reinforce your identity. “ I feel you are …” or “ I want you to… Records and Reports The ff should be available in the office of the chief nurse Personal record Master staffing pattern Daily census of patients Daily time records Hospital and nursing policies Procedure manual Minutes of nursing department meetings Nursing affiliation record for training and teaching hospitals - approved contract for affiliation -quarterly report of affiliation - Record of payments, performance, evaluation - Record of staff development program conducted - Record of nursing researches conducted - Quality assurance program record - Record of turn over Reports are prepared accounts of important activities of a nursing service within particular period Types of reports A. nursing office reports 1. Monthly reports 2. bi-annual and annual reports B. nursing unit reports C. standards for recording (nurses notes) n n -are important element of the patient ‘schart is a legal document QUALITY ASSURANCE - Performance measurement and compares actual processes and outcomes to clinical and satisfaction indicators. Components of a quality assurance program. 1. Clear and concise 2. Standards for measuring the quality of care 3. Analysis and reporting of the data gathered. 4. Use the results to prioritize and correct problems 5. Monitoring of clinical and managerial performance and ongoing feedback to ensure that problem stay solved. 6. Evaluation of the quality management system. Tools for collecting quality Data Nursing Audit. - A basic form of quality data collection, essentially an examination, or verification. 3 basic forms of nursing audit 1. Structure Audits- focus on the setting where care takes place they include physical facilities, equipment, caregivers, procedures,and medical records. 2. Process Audit- implement indicators for measuring nursing care to determine if nursing standards are met. 3. Outcome Audits- evaluate nursing performance in terms of establishing client outcome criteria. Formulation of standard criteria Define the desired outcome Formulate process standard a. application of Dr’s order b. observe sx and rxn c. supervision of client d. supervision of staff e. reporting recording f. Application of techniques d. promotion of health Quality Patient care scale Psychosocial Physical General Communication Professional implication Quality assurance committee  GROUP PROCESS AND COLLABORATIVE WORK. -such as brainstorming, problem solving, and decision making PLANNING ANALYSIS - Are conceptual methods that were generally thought to be limited to top level management. Total = Quality involves everyone and all activities in the company. Quality = Conformance to Requirements (Meeting Customer Requirements). Management = Quality can and must be managed. TQM A process for managing quality; must be a continuous way of life; a philosophy of perpetual improvement in everything we do. TQM Compared to ISO An ISO implementation is a basis for a Total Quality Management implementation. Where there is an ISO system, about 75 percent of the steps are in place for TQM. The requirements for TQM can be considered ISO plus. TQM is the foundation for activities which include Meeting Customer Requirements Reducing Development Cycle Times Just In Time/Demand Flow Manufacturing Improvement Teams Reducing Product and Service Costs Improving Administrative Systems Training The Ten Steps to TQM are as follows: 1. Pursue New Strategic Thinking 2. Know your Customers 3. Set True Customer Requirements 4. Concentrate on Prevention, Not Correction 5. Reduce Chronic Waste 6. Pursue a Continuous Improvement Strategy 7. Use Structured Methodology for Process Improvement 8. Reduce Variation 9. Use a Balanced Approach 10. Apply to All Functions The Principles of TQM are as follows: Quality can and must be managed. Everyone has a customer and is a supplier. Processes, not people are the problem. Every employee is responsible for quality. Problems must be prevented, not just fixed. Quality must be measured. Quality improvements must be continuous. The quality standard is defect free. Goals are based on requirements, not negotiated.  Life cycle costs, not front-end costs. Management must be involved and lead. Plan and organize for quality improvement. Processes must be managed and improved this involves: Defining - Defining the process Measuring - Measuring process performance (metrics) Reviewing - Reviewing process performance Identifying - Identifying process shortcomings Analyzing - Analyzing process problems Making - Making a process change Measuring - xMeasuring the effects of the process change Communicating - Communicating both ways between supervisor and user Key to Quality - The key to improving quality is to improve processes that define, produce and support our products. 5S 1. Seiri (Tidiness) - Throw away all rubbish and unrelated materials in the workplace. 2. Seiton (Orderliness) - Set everything in proper place for quick retrieval and storage 3. Seiso (Cleanliness) - Clean the workplace; everyon should be a janitor 4. Seiketsu (Standardization) - Standardize the way of maintaining cleanliness 5. Shitsuke (Discipline) - Practice 'Five S' daily - make it a way of life; this also means 'commitment' Key to Quality People ○ Get processes "in control" ○ Work with other employees and managers to identify process problems and eliminate them Managers and/or Supervisors Work on Processes ○ Provide training and tool resources ○ Measure and review process performance ○ Improve process performance with the help of ○ those who use the process Planning a Change Six Questions - Six Graphs for Planning A Change 1. What goes on in the activity? (Flowchart) 2. What are the big problems? (Pareto Diagram) 3. What are the causes of the “ Big problem? (Fish bone diagram) 4. What does a review of the past data show? (Histogram) 5. What are the cause/effect relationship? (Fish bone diagram) 6. What does current data show about the activity? (Line Plot control chart) PDCA CYCLE Rational approach Plan carefully what is to be done Do it, or carry out the plan Check the results Act on the results BASIC ETHICAL PRINCIPLE - Ethics deals with moral behavior or how one should act STEWARDSHIP Is the conducting, supervising, or managing of something; especially the careful and responsible management of something entrusted to one's care (*stewardship of our natural resources) Our bodies, life, human nature, and everything on this earth are gifts. As stewards of these gifts, we should not harm them Instead, we should treat them with utmost respect We cannot contradict human nature Situation where this principle can be Applied: Tally, 16, is afraid of injections and hospitals. She has acute appendicitis and needs surgery, but she refuses TOTALITY This refers to the whole Every person must develop, use, care for and preserve all his parts and functions for themselves as well as for the good of the whole eg. if part or lower function harm the whole, this part or lower function may be sacrificed for the good or better function of the whole The basic capabilities which define human personhood, however, are sacrificed only when there is need to preserve life This principle applies only to the individual body but cannot be extended to sacrificing an individual for the sake of the society ISSUES USING THIS ARGUMENT Organ donation vs. organ selling Ectopic pregnancy Cloning DOUBLE EFFECT When an act is foreseen to have both good and bad effects ❖The secondary effects may be foreseen but can never be the intended outcomes. ❖The good intention is equal to or outweighs the harmful effect. ❖Has detractors who feel that unwanted effects of actions that are foreseen and still allowed within the course of treatment become intended effects. ❖Under what circumstances can one be said to act morally when some of the manifested that action are harmful? GUIDING ELEMENTS: The course chosen must be good or at least morally neutral. The good must not follow as a consequence of the secondary harmful effects The harm must never be intended but merely tolerated as casually connected with the good intended The good must outweigh the harm COOPERATION Is the participation of one agent with another agent to produce a particular effect or joint effect. Cooperation becomes a problem when the action of the primary agent is morally wrong Cooperation may be: A. Formal – when the secondary agent willingly participates as when one agrees, advice, counsels, promotes or condones B. Material – when the secondary agent does not willingly participate A. Immediate – when the action of the secondary agent is inherently bound to the performance of the evil action B. mediate – when the action of the secondary agent is not bound to the performance of an evil action Example of cases: Edna is failing in class. Greta is a high achiever. Greta sits beside Edna during an examination and allows Edna to copy her answers in order Edna topass. SOLIDARITY Solidarity means to be one with other Patient best interest The poor, the uneducated, the disadvantaged, and the marginalised – least provided with health care facilities, need the concern of a healthcare provider Patient’s Henry has aplastic anemia and needs blood. Other barangay residents offer their blood MAJOR BIOETHICAL PRINCIPLE - Deals with moral behavior as it relates to life JUSTICE Is incorporated in the general principle “to each according to his desert.” (means give each his due) ▪ Justice, also termed fairness. X has a right to his due Y has the obligation not to deprive X of his due Justice also means to treat equals equally X & Y are equal X & Y should have equal benefits/burdens CATEGORIES OF JUSTICE 1. Formal Principle of Justice - As attributed to Aristotle- “equal ought to be treated equally and unequal may be treated unequally” 2. Materials Principle of Justice – identify a relevant property such as need, effort, or merit on the basis of which burdens and benefits should be distributed and exclude other properties as irrelevant. IMPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES OF JUSTICE 1. Each individual should receive what his due by right such as: Life Information needed for Decision Making Confidentiality of private information 2. Benefits should be justly distributed among individuals such as: Minimum health care Equal opportunities for a scarce resources 3. Each individual should share in the burden of health and science such as Caring for his own health Caring for the health of others Participating in health /sciences progress VIOLATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES Denying/withholding a benefit to which a person has a right. Distributing a minimum health benefit unequally. Imposing an unfair burden on an individual. NON-VIOLATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLE The person chooses to give-up what is due. The patient loses his right to what is due.The patient chooses to accept an additional burden. When what appears to be an unjust outcome results from a just process. ROLE OF THE HEALTH PROFESSIONAL Apply the principle of justice to work by: 1. Give each patient what is due: 2. Provide care without discrimination 3. Work towards just health care policies such as the delivery of the minimum health care to all according to their needs 4. Avoid giving undue burden to individuals. DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE The aspects of justice that pertains to a fair scheme of distributing society’s benefits and burdens to its members. 2 levels of distribution of benefits:  A. Macroallocation - deals with decisions regarding how much resources should be used for various goods, including health related expenditures, as well as how priorities are to be established for the distribution of these resources B. Microallocation - This deals with decisions regarding how a scarce resource should be distributed among individuals with competing claims to it. Criteria for distribution of resources: 1. To each, an equal share 2. To each, according to need 3. To each, according to effort 4. To each, according to distribution 5. To each, according to merit 6. To each, according to ability to pay Theories of Justice A. The utilitarian theories “The greatest good of the greatest number”. 1. The medical success principle, treatment is given to a person with the highest possible success. 2. The principle of immediate usefulness give priority to the candidate who is of greatest immediate service to the larger group. 3. The principle of conservation gives priority to those candidates who require proportionally. 4. The parental role principle, this gives priority to person with highest responsibility. 5. The principle of general social value gives priority to those believed to have the greatest general worth thus leading to the good of the society. B. The Egalitarian theory “ These represent maintaining or restoring the equality of the persons in need. 1. The principles of saving no one gives priority to no one because not all can be saved. 2. The principle of medical neediness gives priority to the candidates with the most pressing medical needs. 3. The principle of general neediness gives priority to the most helpless or generally neediest in an attempt to bring them as nearly as possible to a level of well being equal to that enjoyed by others. 4. The principle of first come first serve or principle of queuing gives priority to those who arrive first. 5. The principle of random selection gives priority to those selected by chance or random. DISTRIBUTION OF BURDEN Like benefits, the burden should be distributed equally as well. Justice demands that when giving undue burden to an individual an informed consent is needed RESPECT FOR PERSON  is the recognition of the equality possessed by every human being as a unique, worthy, rational, self-determining creature, having the capacity and right to decide what is best for himself it is the responsibility of all to treat persons as an end and never as a means Respect for a person is manifest in autonomy X has a right to determine his course of action Y has an obligation not to constrain X THE INVIOLABILITY OF LIFE The principle of the inviolability of life is also proposed as sanctity, dignity, respect or for human life. This principle means that life, in itself, is sacred. Commitment to this principle is choosing life and fighting to protect it. X has a right to life Y has a duty NOT to kill X NON-MALEFICENCE This principle states that “one ought not to inflict evil or harm.” It is related to the following human rights Right not to be killed Right not to have bodily injury or pain inflicted on oneself Right not to have one’s confidence revealed to others A. Implication of the principle of non-maleficence X should not harm Y X has to give “due care” in dealing with Y so that no harm is inflicted on Y B. Violations of the principle of non-maleficence 1. Physically harming the person 2. Exposing a person to physical harm as subjecting a person to unnecessary treatment or to a dangerous procedure without a commensurate important goal 3. Harming a person’s reputation, honor, property, or interests by revealing confidential information C. Non-violation of the principle of non-maleficence Principle of indirect or double effect justifies some action D. Role of the health professional The health professional must possess knowledge, skill, and diligence Take preventive measures to prevent harming the patient BENEFICENCE Is the positive pole of non-maleficence This means to do good, to provide a benefit Entails weighing benefits versus burdens and then choosing the action that brings the most benefit and the least burden to those affected. X has a duty to benefit Y provided Y is at significant risk X’s action is needed  X’s action is likely to succeed There is no significant risk for X The benefit to Y outweighs any harm for X CONFIDENTIALITY It is an important aspect of the trust that patients place in health care professionals. With computer technology and sophisticated information systems, personal confidentiality is beset in all aspects of lives. The breaching of confidentiality has serious implications. It threatens to harm patients, professions, and the society in general that depends upon the services provided. ROLE FIDELITY FIDELITY is a commitment to the obligation she has accepted as a NURSE. Commitment to a PROMISE. This is the promise to HONOR the agreement with her PATIENT. AUTONOMY Came from Greek words: AUTOS – “Self” and NOMOS – “Governance” In health care, this means a form of personal liberty, where individual is free to choose and implement one’s own decisions, free from deceit, duress, constraint, or coercion. 3 elements involved in the process: A. Ability to decide. B. The power to act upon one’s decisions. C. A respect for the individual autonomy of others. Veracity The quality of telling the TRUTH. Binds both health professional and the patient in an association of truth. It is logically impossible to have confidence in an agreement, if one cannot have confidence in the truthfulness of the people making the agreement. DIRECTING Issuance of assignments, orders and instructions that permit the worker to understand what is expected of him or her, the guidance and overseeing of the worker so that he or she can contribute effectively and efficiently to the attainment of the organisational objective.”Douglas” The purpose of directing is to get the work done through others “Mariner” Communication is the key element that holds an organization together A nursing leader who is skillful in communication behaviors will tend to be more successful in directing nursing staff than the nursing leader with limited communication skills.”Hanney” FACTORS IN DIRECTING  Leadership Delegation Supervision Motivation Communication DELEGATION Assigning of one’s job duties to another. “Entrusting a subordinate with responsibility for a total project signifies confidence in the subordinates' abilities”. Sharing responsibility and authority with subordinates and holding them accountable for their performance Process that facilitates complex organizations to accomplish work through the coordinated and differentiated efforts of others Delegation is a tool that nurse manager uses to build morale among the staff PURPOSES OF DELEGATION Saves time and can help develop others Maximizes the use of the talents of staff associate Use of talent abilities in personnel that contribute to their growth and development ASPECTS OF DELEGATION “The manager assigns responsibility, gives authority, and creates accountability within the subordinate.” Responsibility- obligation Authority- the power to make final decisions and give command Accountability- liability “Subordinates, when they accept delegated responsibility are under obligation to complete the task and use authority appropriately” GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE DELEGATION Give a clear description of what it is you want the employee to do. Share with the employee the outcome you expect and by when Discuss the degree of responsibilities and authority that the employee will have Ask the employee to summarize the main points of the task that has been delegated AREAS TO CONSIDER FOR DELEGATION 1. Routine task 2. Tasks for which you don’t have time 3. Problem-solving 4. Change in your own job emphasis 5. Capability building Areas not to be delegated: The power to discipline, responsibility for maintaining morale, overall control, the hot potato BARRIERS TO DELEGATION 1. I can do it better myself fallacy 2. Lack of ability to direct 3. Absence of controls that warn of impending difficulties 4. Aversion to taking a risk REASONS MANAGERS RESIST DELEGATION OF RESPONSIBILITIES: Confidentiality Lack of confidence in subordinate's abilities Fear of losing control over highly valued activities Fear of offending subordinates by increasing workload REASONS MANAGERS RESIST…… Concern that subordinates or superiors might view delegation as evidence of the managers inability to fulfill job expectations Fear that a talented subordinate may take over the manager's job Reluctance to request assistance from a subordinate SUPERVISION Overseeing the activities of others Inspecting the work of another approving or correcting the adequacy of performance Encourages the development of the potentials of the workers for effective and efficient performance Concerned with people, work area, working conditions, and the work itself GOALS OF SUPERVISION To bring personal and professional growth of employees (nurses) in order to achieve quality in the health care system. It is the key to maintaining standards. To persist in the delivery of high-quality healthcare services. To assist and to help in the development of staff to their highest potential. To interpret policies , objectives & need etc. of the organization. To plan services cooperatively and to develop coordination to avoid overlapping To assist in the problem-solving of matters concerning personal, administrative, and operation of services. To develop standards of service and methods of evaluation of personnel and services. To evaluate the services given, personal performance, and progress made and to suggest changes for improving the work effectively and outcome of the personnel. problem-solving TYPES OF CLINICAL SUPERVISION One-to-one supervision – the nurse and the supervisor will work closely and typically share the same field of specialization like ER, Hemodialysis, ICU, OR. One-to-one peer supervision – this is between two nurses of equal status, taking turns to supervise each other, advantage is no supervisor or authority figure in the process Group supervision - involves a group of nurses who meet with one clinical supervisor and share important components of their caseloads. For example, each nurse will take turns presenting a case to the group and then receive feedback on how to improve nursing skills or treatment ideas.  This type of supervision allows a nurse to receive multiple perspectives of their case, which in turn provides them with the ability to stay open-minded during the supervision process. Peer group supervision - Like that of one-to-one peer supervision, this allows for a group of nurses of equal status to meet and discuss their caseloads or challenges they are experiencing.With this type of supervision, the nurses must be careful, as sessions can easily become too informal, taking the attention away from what needs to be discussed. On the other hand, it allows nurses to discuss their personal experiences without anyone being in charge. This style of supervision can allow each nurse in the group to be more forthcoming with each other as there is no authority figure in the mix. PRINCIPLES OF SUPERVISION Supervision should encourage self-expression to draw out the potential abilities of a worker. Supervision should provide initiative to individuals to take more responsibility. Supervision should provide full opportunity to do work in cooperation to develop the team spirit. And develop good interpersonal relationships. Supervision should give autonomy to the workers depending on personality, competence, and characteristics. Supervision interprets policies and gives creative instructions Supervision should meet the individual needs. Supervisor should always think of herself as a leader to gives guidance help and encouragement. Supervision should be democratic. Supervision should be well planned and adapted to good planning. It calls for good planning and organization. Good supervision respects the personality of an individual (employee) TECHNIQUES OF SUPERVISION Techniques are based on three stages Stage 1: Preparation for supervision Stage 2: Supervision Stage 3: Follow up of supervision STAGE ONE PREPARATION FOR SUPERVISION Study of documents Identification of priority for supervision Preparation of supervision schedule STAGE TWO SUPERVISION I. Establishing Contacts II. Review of the objectives , targets and norms III. Review the job description IV. Observe the nursing staff’s motivation V. Observe for any actual or potential conflicts STAGE THREE FOLLOW UP OF SUPERVISION Reorganization of time – table/work plan/duty roster Organizing in-service training programs /continuing  education programs for nursing personnel Initiating changes in logistic support or supply system Initiating actions for organizing staff welfare activities Counseling and guidance regarding career development and professional growth. METHODS OF SUPERVISION Technical versus creative supervision Co-operative versus authoritative supervision Scientific versus intuitive supervision STYLES OF SUPERVISION Task centered Employee centered supervisor An autocratic or critical supervisor A Benevolent supervisor A Democratic supervisor QUALITIES OF A GOOD SUPERVISOR Thoroughness Fairness Initiative Tact Enthusiasm Emotional control General outlook Personal qualifications Teaching ability MOTIVATION A leadership function aimed to arouse, excite or influence another person to behave in some role or perform some action the person would not ordinarily do. It also refers to some inner drive, impulse or intention that causes one to act or believe in a certain way, or to seek a particular goal To encourage/induce a person to work toward the attainment of the goal THEORIES OF MOTIVATION TAYLOR’S MONISTIC THEORY Frederick Taylor If an energetic person with high productivity learned that she earned no more than a lazy worker who did as little possible, she would lose interest in yielding her optimum An incentive is needed to prevent this loss such as bonus systems, profit sharing, saving sharing and piece rate MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS People are motivated by a desire to satisfy hierarchy of needs 5 BASIC NEEDS  Physiological Safety and security Love and belonging needs Esteem needs Self-actualization ALDERFER’S MODIFIED NEED HIERARCHY Clayton Alderfer ERG Theory ○ Existence ○ Relatedness ○ Growth Less rigid than Maslow More than one need may be operative MCCLELLAND’S BASIC NEEDS THEORY David McClelland 3 Basic needs Achievement Power Affiliation Varies to certain degrees HERZBERG’S MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY Frederick Herzberg Two Factor Theory Motivators: achievement, growth, responsibility, advancement, recognition Dissatisfiers: pay, benefits, status, job security, supervision, interpersonal relationships or hygiene factors ARGYRIS PSYCHOLOGICAL ENERGY THEORY Chris Argyris People will exert more energy to meet their own needs than those of the organization. Management match talents and interests, makes jobs interesting and challenging to satisfy their needs for self-actualization VROOM’S EXPECTANCY THEORY Victor Broom Motivation is dependent on how much someone wants something and her estimates for the probability of getting it High valence and high expectancy , the motivation will be high and vice versa SKINNERS POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT THEORY Operant conditioning or behavior modification Positive reinforcement strengthens behavior Accentuating the positive with plenty of praise and positive feedback may increase the frequency of desired behavior EQUITY THEORY If a person feels overworked and underpaid, she is likely to decrease her productivity People do not usually leave an organization unless there is extreme inequity If the comparison is equal, the person feels that she is treated fairly INTRINSIC MOTIVATION Edward L. Deci When a person’s feelings of competence and self determination are enhanced, her intrinsic motivation will increase Managers should foster stimulation through means as continuing education and special projects MC GREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y Douglas Mc Gregor Theory X People want direction, have little ambition, avoid responsibility but want security The manager uses fear and threats to motivate personnel to delegate little responsibility and not consider personnel participation in planning Theory Y People like and enjoy work, are self-directed, and seek responsibility Managers use positive incentives such as praise and recognition, give general supervision provide opportunities for individual TEAM BUILDING Groupings of 2 or more personnel/ worker together towards a common purpose or goal Characterized by an emergence of a leader that will sustain the confidence of other MAJOR ASPECT OF TEAM BUILDING To help member of an organization become more aware of their vast potential It improves member’s skills, to enable them to work more efficiently with others in a cooperative effort toward a goal To develop an environment of cohesiveness among members in a unit, other units, department, or divisions 5 ELEMENTS TO MAKE THE TEAM EFFECTIVE Mutual Trust ○ Avoid putting enemies together ○ Introduce new members Mutual Support ○ Provide help and attention to loners ○ Avoid the emergence of competing subgroups Genuine Communication Acceptance of Conflicts as normal Mutual Respect CHARACTERISTICS OF A TEAM Organic Interdependent  ○ Each member support each other ○ Actions of each member inspire their teammates Enjoyable ○ Camaraderie, the sense of belonging and the sheer fun of being in a group Civilized ○ Learn to interact even with differences RULES FOR TEAM BUILDING Hire strong people Learn to Speak up (assertive not aggressive) Practice openness Be a positive thinker Be resourceful Be yourself Finish it here Keep confidential matters confidential BLOCKS TO TEAMWORK Silence Shyness Doubt Lack of confidence fear of rejection Inferiority/superiority complex Anxiety Discrimination Sensitiveness Communication differences COMMUNICATION Transfer of information and understanding from one person,to another The ability to communicate effectively both in written and spoken language The essential tool that was used while performing the various functions of management COMMUNICATION PROCESS Is the series of steps that enables an idea in one persons’ mind to be transmitted, understood, and acted on by another person. OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION To be understood To get agreement To get something done To understand others BASICS COMMUNICATION “ I had six honest serving men- they taught me all I knew. Their names were What & Why & Who & Where & When & How.” Rudyard Kipling IT SHOULD ANSWER…  What? ○ What is the message to be communicated? ○ Why? ○ What is the purpose of the communication? ○ What do I want the audience to do as a result of this communication? Who? ○ Will be receiving the communication? Who is the audience? Where? ○ Where will the communication take place? ○ When? ○ At what time (of the day. Year. Era. Or social climate) will it occur? How? ○ How will the message be communicated? EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION POSES 3 CHALLENGES: Getting TO the people. Getting INTO the people. Getting a response OUT OF the people. COMMUNICATION PROCESS 1. Ideation- the sender decides to share the content of a message with someone 2. Encoding- putting meaning into symbolic forms 3. Transmission- actual transmission of message 4. Receiving- receiver’s senses of seeing and hearing are activated as the transmitted message is received 5. Decoding- the receiver defines words and interprets gestures during the transmission of speech 6. Response or feedback- is important for the manager or sender to know that the message has been received and accurately interpreted PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION 1. Information giving is not communication 2. Responsibility for clarity resides with the sender 3. Simple and exact language should be used 4. Feedback should be encouraged 5. The sender must have credibility 6. Acknowledgement of others is essential 7. Direct channels of communications are best METHODS OF COMMUNICATION Strategy - know your audience Structure – forecast the main idea Support – evidence & visual aids helps to establish credibility Style – method or approach Supplement- Q & A STYLES OF COMMUNICATION Passive  Aggressive Assertive TYPES OF COMMUNICATION SPOKEN COMMUNICATION; ○ Informal talks ○ Planned appointments ○ Telephone calls ○ Informal staff meetings ○ Planned conferences ○ Mass meeting WRITTEN COMMUNICATION; ○ Interoffice memos ○ Letters ○ Reports ○ Bulletin-board notices ○ Posters, exhibits, and displays ○ Audio and visual aids NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION; ○ Body language Nodding the head up & down can imply agreement Shaking the head from side to side means disagreement Raising the eyebrows may signal doubt or surprise Rolling the eyes means disbelief LINES OF COMMUNICATION DOWNWARD Is primarily directive and helps coordinate the activities of diff. levels of the hierarchy by telling staff associates what to do and by providing information needed to relate their efforts to the org. goals Oral, written (Memoranda or memos, directives, MOO, Records and Reports) Handbooks, operating manuals, job description sheets, performance appraisals, letters, memoranda, messages, bulleting boards, posters and a loud speaker system UPWARD Provides a means for motivating and satisfying personnel by allowing employee’s input The manager summarizes information and passes it upward to the next level for use in decision-making That level then summarizes its action and transmits information to the next level up to the top management LATERAL Horizontal Communication is between dept. or personnel on the,same level of the hierarchy and is most frequently used to coordinate activities  To facilitate communication, committees may be created, or conferences and meetings may be called DIAGONAL Occurs between individuals or dept that are not on the same level of the hierarchy Informal and is used frequently bet. Staff groups and line functions Often flow in all directions BLOCKS TO COMMUNICATION Personal Barriers - listening skills Psychological blocks – not in proper state of mind or emotion Environmental distractions - noise Semantic barriers – double meaning Organizational barriers BASIC SUGGESTIONS THAT MAY IMPROVE YOUR LISTENING POWER: Don’t assume anything Don’t interrupt Try to understand the need Don’t react too quickly GUIDELINES THAT SHOULD MINIMIZE TROUBLE: 1. Don’t make it a struggle for power 2. Avoid an offhand manner 3. Watch out for your words 4. Don’t assume that the worker understands 5. Seek feedback right away 6. Don’t give too many orders 7. Provide just enough detail 8. Watch out for conflicting instructions 9. Don’t choose only the willing worker 10. Try not to pick on anyone. 11. Above all, don’t play the big shot WORDS OF WISDOM: “Everything we do in life is 85% attitudinal”.….if we improve attitude, we increase capability & chances to succeed. But our attitudes are a function of the way we view the world – our paradigms.” Brian Tracy.”