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Notes on Introduction to Functional English Functional English (2024 to 27) 1  Sr.n Table of Contents Page No. o 1. BASIC OF GRAMMAR 1 to 28 Pa...

Notes on Introduction to Functional English Functional English (2024 to 27) 1  Sr.n Table of Contents Page No. o 1. BASIC OF GRAMMAR 1 to 28 Parts of Speech ○ Noun ○ Pronoun ○ Adjective ○ Verb ○ Adverb ○ Conjunction ○ Preposition 2. Various Tense 29 to 67 ○ Present Simple ○ Present Continuous ○ Present Perfect ○ Present Perfect Continuous ○ Past Simple ○ Past Continuous ○ Past Perfect ○ Past Perfect Continuous ○ Future Simple ○ Future Continuous ○ Future Perfect ○ Future Perfect Continuous Basic concept of direct and indirect ○ Reported speech Active and passive concept Functional English (2024 to 27) 2  ○ What is a Sentence? ○ Sentence Structure 3. LISTENING 68 to 72 Types Of Listening ○ Active listening ○ Passive listening ○ Critical listening ○ Empathetic listening Activity ○ Listen to English by Radio/TV ○ Listen to Songs or podcast ○ Listen to the News 4. SPEAKING 73 to 76 Presentations in English How to address people in English ○ Asking the question ○ Answering the question ○ Formal Titles in English Agreeing and disagreeing in English ○ Stating an opinion ○ Asking for an opinion ○ Expressing agreement ○ Expressing disagreement ○ Interruptions Functional English (2024 to 27) 3  ○ Settling an argument Activity ○ Phone Practice 1: Making an Appointment ○ Practice 1: At a Bus Stop ○ Small Talk in English 5. READING 77 to 86 Introduction ○ Points to kept in mind Interpreting Text Reading Techniques Understanding and interpreting the opinions Express in a text Exercise ○ Comprehension Reading Activity ○ Read about Movies ○ Read about Recent Historical Events ○ Driverless Cars Coming Soon ○ Short Stories 6. WRITING 87 to 146 Punctuation and using Capital letters Signs and Symbols Abbreviations Plagiarism Writing prompts Essay writing Resume Functional English (2024 to 27) 4 1.BASIC OF GRAMMAR Introduction English is a West Germanic language in the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the island of Great Britain. Existing on a dialect continuum with Scots and then most closely related to the Low Saxon and Frisian languages. Modern English is genealogically Germanic. However, its vocabulary also shows major influences from French (about 28% of English words) and Latin (also about 28%), plus some grammar and a small amount of core vocabulary influenced by Old Norse (a North Germanic language). Speakers of English are called Anglophones. The earliest forms of English, collectively known as Old English or "Anglo-Saxon", evolved from a group of North Sea Germanic dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the 5th century; these dialects generally resisted influence from the then-local Common Brittonic and British Latin languages. Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the start of the Great Vowel Shift and the Renaissance trend of borrowing further Latin and Greek words and roots into English, concurrent with the introduction of the printing press to London. This era notably culminated in the King James Bible and the works of William Shakespeare. The printing press greatly standardized English spelling, which has remained largely unchanged since then, despite a wide variety of later sound shifts in different English dialects. Modern English grammar is the result of a gradual change from a typical Indo-European dependent-marking pattern with a rich inflectional morphology and relatively free word in order to a mostly analytic pattern with little inflection and a fairly fixed subject–verb–object word order. Modern English relies more on auxiliary verbs and word order for the expression of complex tenses, aspects and moods, as well as passive constructions, interrogatives, and some negation. Functional English (2024 to 27) 5 Modern English has spread around the world since the 17th century as a consequence of the worldwide influence of the British Empire and the United States of America. There are more people who have learned English as a second language than there are native speakers. As of 2005, it was estimated that there were over two billion speakers of English. English is the majority native language in the United Kingdom, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the Republic of Ireland (see Anglosphere) and is widely spoken in some areas of the Caribbean, Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Oceania. It is a co-official language of the United Nations, the European Union, and many other international and regional organizations. English accounts for at least 70% of speakers of the Germanic language branch of the Indo-European family. Modern English, sometimes described as the first global lingua franca, is also regarded as the first world language. English is the world's most widely used language in newspaper publishing, book publishing, international telecommunications, scientific publishing, international trade, mass entertainment, and diplomacy. Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the "rules" of a language; but in fact no language has rules.Languages started by people making sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a reflection of a language at a particular time. Part :1 Parts Of Speech Functional English (2024 to 27) 6 A.NOUN What is a noun? A Noun is that part of Speech which consists the name of Person Place Animal, Thing and Idea Person – A term for a person, whether proper name, gender, title, or class, is a noun. Animal – A term for an animal, whether proper name, species, gender, or class is a noun. Place – A term for a place, whether proper name, physical location, or general locale is a noun. Thing – A term for a thing, whether it exists now, will exist, or existed in the past is a noun. Idea – A term for an idea, be it a real, workable idea or a fantasy that might never come to fruition is a noun. Identify the noun in each of the following sentences: ✔ The restaurant is open. ✔ Follow the rules. ✔ John started to run. Types of Nouns ⮚ Proper nouns and Common nouns Functional English (2024 to 27) 7 Proper nouns have two distinct features: They name specific one-of- a-kind items, and they begin with capital letters, no matter where they occur within a sentence. Here, we’ll take a closer look at proper nouns, provide proper noun examples, and help you learn how to use a proper noun the right way. How to Use Proper Nouns and Common Noun? ❖ It’s easy to use proper nouns, once you know what they are. Simply place them in your sentences as you would common nouns, ensuring that you capitalize them. Here are some examples to help you get started. ❖ Common nouns are words used to name general items rather than specific ones. Lamp, chair, couch, TV, window, painting, pillow, candle– all of these items are named using common nouns. B.VERBS What is a verb? Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the subject is doing. Along with nouns, verbs are the main part of a sentence or phrase, telling a story about what is taking place. In fact, without a verb, full thoughts cannot be properly conveyed, and even the simplest sentences, such as Maria sings, have one. Actually, a verb can be a sentence by itself, with the subject, in most cases you, implied, such as, Sing! and Drive! Functional English (2024 to 27) 8 When learning the rules of grammar, schoolchildren are often taught that verbs are ‘doing’ words, meaning they signify the part of the sentence which explains the action taking place: He ran away, she eats chocolate cake on Sundays, the horses gallop across the fields. Ran, eats and gallop are the ‘action’ parts of those sentences, thus they are the verbs. However, it can be confusing because not all verbs are easily identifiable as action: I know your name, Jack thought about it, we considered several applications. These are non-action verbs, i.e. those that describe a state of being, emotion, possession, sense or opinion. Other non-action verbs include love, agree, feel, am, and have. Verb Classification: We divide verbs into two broad classifications: 1. helping verbs 2. main verbs Helping Verbs Imagine that a stranger walks into your room and says: I can. People must. The Earth will. Do you understand anything? Has this person communicated anything to you? Probably not! That's because these verbs are helping verbs and have no meaning on their own. They are necessary for the grammatical structure of the sentence, but they do not tell us very much alone. We usually use helping verbs with main verbs. Helping verbs are also called "auxiliary verbs". Modal helping verbs Meaning Can (I can work.) Ability May (May I come in.) Permission Will (I will come to work.) Certain and future Functional English (2024 to 27) 9  Could (I could process the papers.) Ability with an Offer Would (I would like to go.) Conditional / past time habit Should (He should be there.) Advice Might (It might rain tomorrow.) Possibility Must (There must be a way out.) Obligation /necessity Main Verbs Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are thousands of main verbs, and we can classify them in several ways: Transitive and intransitive verbs A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An intransitive verb does not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak, can be transitive or intransitive. Look at these examples: transitive: I saw an elephant. We are watching TV. He speaks English. intransitive: He has arrived. John goes to school. She speaks fast. Main Verb A main verb, as the name suggests, is the principal verb in a sentence. It denotes the action performed by the primary subject in a context. Functional English (2024 to 27) 10 The Cambridge Dictionary defines a main verb as “the verb that contains the meaning, compared with any auxiliary verbs that go with it in a clause.” According to the Collins Dictionary, a main verb is “a word used as the final verb in a verb phrase, expressing the lexical meaning of the verb phrase, as ‘drink’ in ‘I don’t drink’, ‘going’ in ‘I am going’, or ‘spoken’ in ‘We have spoken’.” There are umpteen numbers of verbs that can be used as main verbs in a sentence. Given below is a list of a few common verbs that can function as main verbs. Write, Speak, Read, Talk, Walk, Sit, Jump, Swim, Leave, Am, Is, Are, Have. ❖How to Use Main Verbs in Sentences? Main verbs can be further divided into regular verbs and irregular verbs. The usage of the verb changes according to the type of the main verb. As far as regular verbs are concerned, they follow the same rules when conjugated to form a particular tense form. Irregular verbs, on the other hand, have specific conjugations to form the past and past participle forms. The usage of these verbs as a main verb to represent the different tenses, therefore, depends on the type of verb. Let us look at the following examples to have a better understanding. ✓I am a tennis player. ✓She is going to the grocery store. ✓The little boy loved the cake. ✓My mom knows to operate the computer. ✓Tina asked Sheela to work on the pending documents. Difference between Main Verbs and Helping (or auxiliary) Verbs The main difference between main verbs and helping verbs is that the main verb is the principal verb in a sentence and represents the primary action done by the subject in the sentence, whereas the helping verb is used along with the main verb to denote the tense of the verb. Let us look at the following examples to understand better. ✓Arjun is a salesman. (The verb ‘is’ acts as the main verb here that represents the action of Arjun being a salesman.) ✓ The peacock flew from one tree to another. (The verb ‘flew’ acts as the main verb in this sentence, and it represents the action of the peacock flying from one tree to another in the past.) Functional English (2024 to 27) 11 ✓ Gavin will be meeting us at the airport. (The verb ‘will be’ is the helping verb and the verb ‘meeting’ acts as the main verb that represents a progressive action of Gavin meeting us at the airport in the future.) ✓She has come all the way from Chicago to profess her love for him. (The verb ‘has’ acts as the helping verb and ‘come’ acts as the main verb, which indicates the action of her coming from Chicago in the recent past to profess her love for him.) ✓ He likes pizzas and burgers more than anything else. (The verb ‘likes’ is the main verb in the sentence, and it signifies the action of him liking pizzas and burgers more than anything else. EXERCISE: (Students to Do by themselves) Identify the main verbs in the following sentences. 1. Raam sent me a gift for my birthday. 2. Tharun has a brother. 3. It is Chirrag’s birthday today. 4. Sheena had visited her mother, who was hospitalised, last week. 5. I have called for a meeting of all the previous employees today evening. 6. When can you deliver the package? 7. They are trapped inside a vault. 8. The mom ran with her children to safety. 9. She started screaming when she saw a cockroach. 10. Can I ask you a question? ANSWERS: Check your answers to find out if you got it right. 1. Raam sent me a gift for my birthday. 2. Tharun has a brother. 3. It is Chirrag’s birthday today. 4. Sheena had visited her mother, who was hospitalised, last week. Functional English (2024 to 27) 12 5. I have called for a meeting of all the previous employees today evening. 6. When can you deliver the package? 7. They are trapped inside a vault. 8. The mom ran with her children to safety. 9. She started screaming when she saw a cockroach. 10. Can I ask you a question? Auxiliary verbs Also called as helping verbs, as the name suggests, is a verb that is used to help another verb sound sensible and meaningful. It is used to change the other verb’s tense, mood, or voice. An auxiliary verb is a verb that is used as a helping verb along with the main verb in a sentence to make it more meaningful. It is used to alter the tense, mood or voice of the sentence. e.g., Am, is, are, was, were, have, has etc. ❖Points to note: ✓Auxiliary words can express state/condition of context. ✓We should conjugate the auxiliary verb correctly according to the tense form of a sentence. ✓They can also be used as a main verb. ✓Also, there are verbs called modal verbs that can be used as a helping verb. ✓There are particularly a few auxiliary verbs that can be used to change the tense of the action being performed by the subject (noun or pronoun) in a context. All ‘to be’ forms of verbs, all forms of ‘have’, and forms of ‘will’ are used to denote different tenses. ❖Points to remember while using Auxiliary words: ✓When using the forms of ‘to be’, make sure you use the gerund (verb+ing) form of the mainverb as they are used to indicate continuous action. ✓When using forms of ‘have’, see to it that you use the past participle forms of the main verbs along with the different forms of ‘have’. There is one other thing that you should keep in mind. When the auxiliary verbs ‘have’ and ‘been’ are used together to represent the perfect ✓continuous tense, see to it that you use the gerund (verb+ing) form of the main verb in that particular sentence. Functional English (2024 to 27) 13 ✓When using the auxiliary verb ‘will’ to denote the simple future tense, see to it that you use the root verb as such along with ‘will’ and a gerund (verb+ing) along with ‘will be’ to indicate the future continuous tense. Make sure you employ the past participle form of the main verb when it is used to indicate the future perfect tense along with the auxiliary verbs, ‘will’ and ‘have’. Functional English (2024 to 27) 14 Auxiliary Verbs used to Alter the Voice of the Verb All forms of ‘to be’, ‘have’ and ‘will’ can be used as auxiliary verbs to represent the voice of the verb in a sentence. Let us look at some examples of how these auxiliary verbs can be used. Functional English (2024 to 27) 15 Auxiliary Verbs used to Express the Mood The verb forms of the auxiliary verb ‘do’ are used to express the mood of a sentence. It is mostly used in imperative and interrogative sentences. Let us look at some examples. Do your children enjoy watching educational films? Did she complete the work that was assigned to her? Do not forget to bring the Bluetooth speaker when you come home tonight. Modal Auxiliary Verbs Functional English (2024 to 27) 16 Modal auxiliary verbs can be used as helping verbs along with other main verbs to emphasize on the possibility, ability, necessity or probability of some action taking place. Have a look at the examples given below to have a clear idea of how it works. Test Your Knowledge on Auxiliary Verbs and Their Usage Try out the following practice exercise to find out how far you have understood the usage of auxiliary verbs in sentences. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate auxiliary verb: 1. Leena ______ eating an apple. 2. _____ you finish the work I _____ given you yesterday? 3. _________ you please pass the logbook? 4. You _________ follow the rules. 5. Your phone ___________ damaged. Functional English (2024 to 27) 17 6. I am sorry, I ________ make it to your wedding. 7. Derrick __________ submitted all the documents for verification last week. 8. The Queen’s jewellery ______ stolen from the museum. 9. Peter ______ asked to host the ceremony by his uncle. 10. Sam and Joe ______ attending the event. Ready to find out if you got it all right? Check your answers. 1. Leena is/was eating an apple. 2. Did you finish the work I had given you yesterday? 3. Could/Can you please pass the logbook? 4. You should/ought to follow the rules. 5. Your phone should be damaged. 6. I am sorry, I cannot make it to your wedding. 7. Derrick had submitted all the documents for verification last week. 8. The Queen’s jewellery was/had been stolen from the museum. 9. Peter was asked to host the ceremony by his uncle. 10. Sam and Joe will be attending the event. C) ADJECTIVES What is an adjective? An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun. It "describes" or "modifies" a noun (The big dog was hungry). An adjective often comes BEFORE a noun: a green car a dark sky an interesting story And sometimes an adjective comes AFTER a verb: My car is green. The sky became dark. His story seemed interesting. Functional English (2024 to 27) 18 c).2 Types of Adjectives 1. Possessive Adjectives As the name indicates, possessive adjectives are used to indicate possession. They are: My Your His Her Its Our Their [Note: Possessive adjectives also function as possessive Pronouns.] 2.Demonstrative Adjectives Like the article the, demonstrative adjectives are used to indicate or demonstrate specific people, animals, or things. These, those, this and that are demonstrative adjectives. Examples: 1. These books belong on that 2. This movie is my favorite. 3. Please put those cookies on the blue plate. 3. Coordinate Adjectives Coordinate adjectives are separated with commas or the word and, and appear one after another to modify the same noun. The adjectives in the phrase bright, sunny day and long and dark night are coordinate adjectives. In phrases with more than two coordinate adjectives, the word and always appears before the last one; For example: The sign had big, bold, and bright letters. 4. Numbers Adjectives When they’re used in sentences, numbers are almost always adjectives. Functional English (2024 to 27) 19 You can tell that a number is an adjective when it answers the question 1. “How many?” 2. The stagecoach was pulled by a team of six 3. He ate 23 hotdogs during the contest, and was sick afterwards. 5. Interrogative Adjectives There are three interrogative adjectives: which, what, and whose. Like all other types of adjectives, interrogative adjectives modify nouns. As you probably know, all three of these words are used to ask questions. 1. Which option sounds best to you? 2. What time should we go? 3. Whose socks are those? 6. Indefinite Adjectives Like the articles a and an, indefinite adjectives are used to discuss non-specific things. You might recognize them, since they’re formed from indefinite pronouns. The most common indefinite adjectives are any,many, no, several, and few. 1. Do we have any peanut butter? 2. Grandfather has been retired for many 3. There are no bananas in the fruit bowl. D.Adverb What is Adverb Adverb (noun): a word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb, expressing manner, place, time or degree; a word that can modify a phrase, clause or sentence.An adverb is a word that tells us more about a verb. It "qualifies" or "modifies" a verb (The man ran quickly). In the following examples, the adverb is in bold and the verb that it modifies is in italics. John speaks loudly. (How does John speak?) Afterwards she smoked a cigarette. (When did she smoke?) Mary lives locally. (Where does Mary live?) Functional English (2024 to 27) 20  d).2 Types of Adverbs Adverbs of Manner Adverbs of Manner tell us the manner or way in which something happens. They answer the question "how?". Adverbs of Manner mainly modify verbs. He speaks slowly. (How does he speak?) Adverbs of Place Adverbs of Place tell us the place where something happens. They answer the question "where?". Adverbs of Place mainly modify verbs. Please sit here. (Where should I sit?) Adverbs of Degree Adverbs of Degree tell us the degree or extent to which something happens. They answer the question "how much?" or "to what degree?". Adverbs of Degree can modify verbs, adjectives and other adverbs. She entirely agrees with him. (How much does she agree with him?) (E)PRONOUNS e).1 What is a Pronoun? A pronoun is defined as a word or phrase that is used as a substitution for a noun or noun phrase, which is known as the pronoun’s antecedent. Pronouns are short words and can do everything that nouns can do and are one of the building blocks of a sentence. Common pronouns are he, she, you, me, I, we, us, this, them, that. A pronoun can act as a subject, direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition, and more and takes the place of any person, place, animal or thing. So coffee becomes it, Barbara becomes she, Jeremy becomes he, the team becomes they, and in a sentence, Barbara drinks a cup of coffee every afternoon could become she drinks a cup of it every afternoon, or even she drinks it every afternoon, where the it would substitute the cup of coffee, not just the coffee. Without pronouns, we would constantly have to repeat nouns, and that would make our speech and writing repetitive, not to mention cumbersome. Without pronouns, Barbara drinks a cup of Functional English (2024 to 27) 21 coffee every afternoon, she likes to have it before dinner would be Barbara drinks a cup of coffee every afternoon, Barbara likes to have the cup of coffee before dinner. Using pronouns helps the flow of sentences and makes them more interesting: He, It, You, I, They, We, Who, Him, Them, Whoever, Anyone, Something, Nobody. e).2 Pronoun Types Personal Pronouns We use personal pronouns in place of the person or people that we are talking about. My name is Josef but when I am talking about myself I almost always use "I" or "me", not "Josef". When I am talking direct to you, I almost always use "you", not your name. When I am talking about another person, say John, I may start with "John" but then use "he" or "him". And so on. Examples (in each pair, the first sentence shows a subject pronoun, the second an object pronoun): I like coffee. / John helped me. Do you like coffee? / John loves you. He runs fast. / Did Ram beat him? She is clever. / Does Mary know her? It doesn't work. / Can the man fix it? Demonstrative Pronouns:Demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to.A demonstrative pronoun represents a thing or things:Here are some examples with demonstrative pronouns, followed by an illustration: This tastes good. Have you seen this? These are bad times. Do you like these? That is beautiful. Look at that! Those were the days! Can you see those? Functional English (2024 to 27) 22 Reflexive Pronouns We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in "-self" (singular) or "-selves" (plural). There are eight reflexive pronouns: reflexive pronoun singular myself , yourself, himself, herself, itself plural Ourselves, yourselves ,themselves Here are few examples as follows: I saw myself in the mirror. Why do you blame yourself? Mary sent herself a copy. My dog hurt itself. We blame ourselves. Interrogative Pronouns We use interrogative pronouns to ask questions. The interrogative pronoun represents the thing that we don't know (what we are asking the question about). There are four main interrogative pronouns: who, whom, what, which Who will come to the party? Which do you prefer? What do you need? Whose clothes are on the floor? Whom did you tell? Functional English (2024 to 27) 23 F) Preposition f).1 What is a preposition? A preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other words within a sentence. They act to connect the people, objects, time and locations of a sentence. Prepositions are usually short words, and they are normally placed directly in front of nouns. In some cases, you’ll find prepositions in front of gerund verbs. A nice way to think about prepositions is as the words that help glue a sentence together. They do this by expressing position and movement, possession, time and how an action is completed. Indeed, several of the most frequently used words in all of English, such as of, to, for, with, on and at, are prepositions. Explaining prepositions can seem complicated, but they are a common part of language and most of us use them naturally without even thinking about it. In fact, it’s interesting to note that prepositions are regarded as a ‘closed class’ of words in the English language. This means, unlike verbs and nouns, no new words are added to this group over time. In a way, it reflects their role as the functional workhorse of the sentence. They are unassuming and subtle, yet vitally important to the meaning of language. There are two very important rules to remember when using prepositions. Because they are somewhat vague, learning about prepositions and using them correctly in sentences takes practice. Because 1:1 translation is often impossible when dealing with prepositions, even the most advanced English students have some difficulty at first. f).2 Six Preposition Rules 1. A preposition must have an object All prepositions have objects. If a "preposition" does not have an object it is not a preposition— it's probably an adverb. A preposition always has an object. An adverb never has an object. Look at these example sentences: They are in the kitchen. (preposition in has object the kitchen) Please come in. (adverb in has no object; it qualifies come) Functional English (2024 to 27) 24  There was a doorway before me. (preposition before has object me) I had never seen it before. (adverb before has no object; it qualifies seen) I will call after work. (preposition after has object work) He called soon after. (adverb after has no object; it qualifies called) 2. pre-position means place before The name “preposition” indicates that a preposition (usually) comes before something (its object): I put it in the box. But even when a preposition does not come before its object, it is still closely related to its object: Who did you talk to? / I talked to Jane. 3. A pronoun following a preposition should be in object form The noun or pronoun that follows a preposition forms a ‘prepositional object’. If it is a pronoun, it should therefore be in the objective form (me, her, them), not subjective form (I, she, they): This is from my wife and me. That’s between him and her. Mary gave it to them. 4. Preposition forms Prepositions have no particular form. The majority of prepositions are one-word prepositions, but some are two- or three-word phrases known as complex-prepositions: one-word prepositions (before, into, on) complex prepositions (according to, but for, in spite of, on account of) 5. to preposition and to infinitive are not the same Do not confuse the infinitive particle “to” (to sing, to live) with the preposition “to” (to London, to me). to as preposition I look forward to lunch I look forward to seeing you I look forward to see you Functional English (2024 to 27) 25  They are committed to the project. They are committed to keeping the price down. They are committed to keep the price down. I am used to cars. I am used to driving. I am used to drive. to as infinitive particle They used to live in Moscow. They love to sing. 6. The golden preposition rule A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is NEVER followed by a verb G).CONJUNCTIONS g).1 What is a conjunction? A conjunction is a part of speech that is used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or sentences. Conjunctions are invariable grammar particles, and they may or may not stand between items they conjoin. g).2 Types of Conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions – Also known as subordinators, these conjunctions join dependent clauses to independent clauses. Coordinating conjunction – Also known as coordinators, these conjunctions coordinate or join two or more sentences, main clauses, words, or other parts of speech which are of the same syntactic importance. Correlative conjunction – These conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join phrases or words that carry equal importance within a sentence. Conjunctive adverbs – While some instructors do not teach conjunctive adverbs alongside conjunctions, these important parts of speech are worth a mention here. These adverbs always Functional English (2024 to 27) 26 connect one clause to another, and are used to show sequence, contrast, cause and effect, and other relationships. The 7 coordinating conjunctions are short, simple words. They have only two or three letters. There's an easy way to remember them - their initials spell "FANBOYS", like this: F A N B O Y S for and nor but or yet so Exercise: (Student should practice on their own) Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate conjunctions in the following sentences: 1. Deepak ________ Santhosh are best friends. 2. Make sure you work hard ______ you will not be able to score good marks. 3. _______ Anna does not cook much, she loves baking. 4. Let me know ______ you will be able to make it to the party. 5. I have to go home now ______ I really wish I could stay for some more time. 6. I am not well _______ I decided to take a day off from work. 7. _________ you work out regularly, you will not see any results. 8. He had no money, _____he was prepared to help me 9. I could not find the place ___________ I lost the map. 10. ________ I was walking on the street, I found a wounded dog. Functional English (2024 to 27) 27 Answers: 1.And 2.Or 3.Although 4.if 5.but 6.so 7.unless 8.yet 9.Since/because 10.while Noun Words that are used to name persons, things, animals, places, ideas, or events. Pronoun Part of a speech which functions as a replacement for a noun. Adjective Describes a noun or a pronoun. Verb An action (physical or mental) or state of being of the subject in a sentence. Adverb Adverbs are also used to describe words, but the difference is that adverbs describe adjectives, verbs, or another adverb. Preposition Words that specify the location or a location in time. Conjunction Part of a speech which joins words, phrases, or clauses together. Interjection Words which express emotions. 2.TENSES: In Grammar, we use 'Tenses' to define the time of the action. Tenses tell us when something happens, the time of an action (verb). Verb comes in three tenses; Present Tense: The present tense is used to describe things that are happening right now or things that are continuous. For example: He is eating Pasta. (Presently he is doing this act of eating) Past Tense: The past is used to describe things that have already happened (e.g., earlier in the day, yesterday, last week, ten years ago). Functional English (2024 to 27) 28 He ate Pasta (He has already done the action of eating) Future Tense: The actions which we are going to do/will do/planning to do are termed as 'Future tense' sentences. He will eat Pasta (He is going to do the action of eating). Session Objective: The students are going to learn tenses with easy method and simple rules:- Enlist of Tenses 1. Simple Present Tense 2. Simple Past Tense 3. Simple Future Tense 4. Continuous Present Tense 5. Continuous Past Tense 6. Continuous Future Tense 7. Perfect Present Tense 8. Perfect Past Tense 9. Perfect Future Tense 10. Perfect Continuous Present Tense 11. Perfect Continuous Past Tense 12. Perfect Continuous Future Tense 1) Simple Present Tense: Functional English (2024 to 27) 29 The Present Simple tense is the most basic tense in English and uses the base form of the verb (except for the verb be). The only change from the base is the addition of s for third person singular. A) Format: Sub+V1+s/es+obj+ B) Use: It is generally used to express action taking place in present time or routine activity. C) Keywords: Daily, everyday, often, sometimes, usually,seldom D) Example: 1. I live in New York. 2. John drives a taxi. 3. We do not work at night. 4. The Moon goes round the Earth. 5. Do you play football? E) Types Of Sentences: Functional English (2024 to 27) 30  Types subject auxiliary main verb of sen. verb(Helpin g Verb) + I, you, we, they like coffee. He, she, it likes coffee - I, you, we, they do not like coffee. He, she, it does not like coffee. ? Do I, you, we, like coffee? they Does he, she, it like coffee? 2) Simple Past Tense: The Past Simple tense is sometimes called the "preterite tense". We can use several tenses and forms to talk about the past, but the Past Simple tense is the one we use most often. A) Format: sub+V2+obj+ow B) Use: It is generally used to express action taking place at some point of time in the past. C) Keywords: last day ,last month, last week, last year,yesterday, when D) Example: I lived in that house when I was young. Functional English (2024 to 27) 31  He didn't like the movie. What did you eat for dinner? John drove to London on Monday. Did you play tennis last week? I was at work yesterday. E) Types Of Types of subject auxiliary main verb sen. verb(Helping Verb) + I went to school You worked very hard - She did not go with me. We did not work yesterday. ? Did you go to London? Did they work at home? Sentences Functional English (2024 to 27) 32 3) Simple Future Tense: The Future Simple tense is often called the "will tense" because we make the Future Simple with the modal auxiliary will. A) Format: sub+ shall/will+V1+obj+ow B) Use: It is generally used to express action that will take place at some point in the future. C) Keywords: tomorrow, next day, next month, next year D) How do we use the Future Simple tense? No Plan We use the Future Simple tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Look at these examples: Hold on. I'll get a pen. We will see what we can do to help you. Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight. In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking. We often use the Future Simple tense with the verb to think before it: I think I'll go to the gym tomorrow. I think I will have a holiday next year. I don't think I'll buy that car. Prediction We often use the Future Simple tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying what we think will happen. Here are some examples: It will rain tomorrow. People won't go to Jupiter before the 22nd century. Who do you think will get the job? Functional English (2024 to 27) 33 Be When the main verb is be, we can use the Future Simple tense even if we have a firm plan or decision before speaking. Examples: I'll be in London tomorrow. I'm going shopping. I won't be very long. Will you be at work tomorrow? E) Types Of Types of subject auxiliary main verb Sentences sen. verb(Helping Verb) + I will open the door. You will finish before me. - We will not leave yet. She will not be at school tomorrow. 4) ? Will you arrive on time? Will they want dinner? Continuous present Tense: We often use the Present Continuous tense in English. It is very different from the Present Functional English (2024 to 27) 34 Simple tense, both in structure and in use. We use the Present Continuous to talk about: action happening now action in the future A) Format: sub+ am/is/are+V1+ing+obj+ow B) Use: It is generally used to express action is ongoing in the present. C) Keywords: now, at this time, at this moment, still, while. D) Examples 1. My brother is going (go) to college. 2. I am understanding (understand) English. 3. My friends’ are laughing (laugh) at my jokes. E) Types Of Sentences Functional English (2024 to 27) 35  Types of subject auxiliary main verb sen. verb(Helping Verb) How do + I am speaking to you. we spell the You are reading this. Present - She is not staying in London. We are not playing football. ? Is he watching TV? Are they waiting for John? Continuous tense? We make the Present Continuous tense by adding -ing to the base verb. Normally it's simple: we just add -ing. But sometimes we have to change the word a little. Perhaps we double the last letter, or we drop a letter. Here are the rules to help you know how to spell the Present Continuous tense. Basic rule Just add -ing to the base verb: work → working play → playing Functional English (2024 to 27) 36  assist → assisting see → seeing be → being Exception If the base verb ends in consonant + stressed vowel + consonant, double the last letter: s t o p consonant stresse consonant d vowel vowels = a, e, i, o, u stop → stopping run → running begin → beginning Note that this exception does not apply when the last syllable of the base verb is not stressed: Functional English (2024 to 27) 37  open → opening Exception If the base verb ends in ie, change the ie to y: lie → lying die → dying Exception If the base verb ends in vowel + consonant + e, omit the e: come → coming mistake → mistaking 5) Continuous Past Tense: The Past Continuous tense is an important tense in English. We use it to say what we were in the middle of doing at a particular moment in the past.The Past Continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm. A) Format: sub+ was/were+V1+ing+obj+ow B) Use: It is generally used to express action that was ongoing in the past. C) Keywords: when, while, before, after D)Examples: When we use the Past Continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples: I was working at 10pm last night. Functional English (2024 to 27) 38  They were not playing football at 9am this morning. What were you doing at 10pm last night? What were you doing when he arrived? She was cooking when I telephoned her. We were having dinner when it started to rain. Ram went home early because it was snowing. E) Types Of Sentences Types of subject auxiliary verb main verb sen. (Helping Verb) + I was watching TV. You were working hard. - He, she, it was not helping Mary. We were not joking. ? Were you being silly? Were they playing football? TIP: We often use the Past Continuous tense with the Past Simple tense. We use the Past Functional English (2024 to 27) 39  Continuous to express a long action. And we use the Past Simple to express a short action that happens in the middle of the long action. We can join the two ideas with when or while. There are four basic combinations: I was walking past the car when it exploded. When the car exploded I was walking past it. The car exploded while I was walking past it. While I was walking past the car it exploded. 6) Continuous Future Tense: The Future Continuous tense is often used in English as a way to talk about something happening at a given point in the future.The Future Continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will have started before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm: A) Format: sub+ shall/will+ be +V1+ing+obj+ow B) Use: It is generally used to express action which will be going to take place in continuous form in some time in future. C) Keywords: by this time- tomorrow, next week, next month,next day, next year. D) Examples: When we use the Future Continuous tense, our listener usually knows or understands what time we are talking about. Look at these examples: I will be playing tennis at 10am tomorrow. They won't be watching TV at 9pm tonight. What will you be doing at 10pm tonight? What will you be doing when I arrive? Functional English (2024 to 27) 40  She will not be sleeping when you telephone her. We'll be having dinner when the film starts. Take your umbrella. It will be raining when you return. E) Types Of Sentences subject auxiliary verb main verb Types of (Helping Verb) sen. + I will be working You will be lying - She will not be using We will not be having ? Will you be playing Will they be watching 7) Perfect Present Tense: The Present Perfect tense is a rather important tense in English, but it gives speakers of some languages a difficult time. That is because it uses concepts or ideas that do not exist in those languages. In fact, the structure of the Present Perfect is very simple. The problems come with Functional English (2024 to 27) 41 the use of the tense. In addition, there are some differences in usage between British and American English. In this lesson we look at the structure and use of the Present Perfect tense, as well as the use of for and since TIPS: The Present Perfect tense is really a very interesting tense, and a very useful one. Try not to translate the Present Perfect into your language. Just try to accept the concepts of this tense and learn to "think" Present Perfect! You will soon learn to like the Present Perfect tense! A. Format: sub+ have/has + V3+obj+ow B. Use: The perfect present tense is used to express and action that have just or already been completed. C. Keywords: just, just now, already, ever, never, yet, still,seems, for. D) Examples: Look at these example sentences using for and since with the Present Perfect tense: I have been here for twenty minutes. I have been here since 9 o'clock. John hasn't called for six months. John hasn't called since February. He has worked in New York for a long time. He has worked in New York since he left school. E) Types Of Sentences Functional English (2024 to 27) 42  subject auxiliary verb main verb Types of (Helping Verb) sen. + I have seen ET. You have eaten mine. - She has not been to Rome. We have not played football. ? Have you finished? Have they done it? When we use the Present Perfect in speaking, we often contract the subject and auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this in informal writing. I have I've You have You've Functional English (2024 to 27) 43  He has He's She has She's It has It's John has John's The car has The car's We have We've They have They've You've told me that before. John's seen Harry Potter. In negative sentences, we may contract the auxiliary verb and "not": You haven't won the contest. She hasn't heard from him. For and Since with Present Perfect tense We often use for and since with perfect tenses: We use for to talk about a period of time: five minutes, two weeks, six years We use since to talk about a point in past time: 9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday for since a period of time a point in past time ------------ - ---------- 20 minutes 6.15pm Functional English (2024 to 27) 44  three days Monday 6 months January 4 years 1994 2 centuries 1800 a long time I left school ever the beginning of time etc etc 8) Perfect Past Tense: The Past Perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use. This tense talks about the "past in the past". A. Format: sub + had+ V3+obj+ow B. Use: The perfect past tense is used to express and action completed before a given moment. C. Keywords: before and after D) Examples : I wasn't hungry. I had just eaten. They were hungry. They had not eaten for five hours. I didn't know who he was. I had never seen him before. "Mary wasn't at home when I arrived." / "Really? Where had she gone?" E) Types Of Sentences Functional English (2024 to 27) 45  subject auxiliary verb main verb Types of (Helping Verb) sen. + I had finished my work. You had stopped before me. - She had not gone to school. We had not left. We ? Had you arrived? Had Had they eaten dinner? When we use the Past Perfect in speaking, we often contract the subject and the auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this in informal writing: I had I'd you had you'd he had he'd she had she'd it had it'd Functional English (2024 to 27) 46  we had we'd they had they'd I'd eaten already. They'd gone home. In negative sentences, we may contract the auxiliary verb and "not": I hadn't finished my meal. Anthony hadn't had a day off for months. 9) Perfect Future Tense: The Future Perfect tense is quite an easy tense to understand and use. The Future Perfect talks about the past in the future.The Future Perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left. A. Format: sub+shall/will + have + V3+obj+ow B. Use: The perfect future tense is used to express and action which is to be completed by a certain point of time of time in the future. C. Keywords: by this, v3+before D.Examples: I'll have finished when you arrive. She'll have forgotten everything. They'll Have had their dinner by then. In negative sentences, we may contract with won't or won't've, like this: Anthony won't have arrived by then. They won't have finished the car tomorrow. E) Types Of Sentences Functional English (2024 to 27) 47  subject auxiliary main verb Types of verb sen. (Helping Verb) + I will have finished by 10am. You will have forgotten me by then. - She had not gone to school. We will not have left. ? Will you have arrived? Will they have received it? Contraction with Future Perfect In speaking with the Future Perfect tense, we often contract the subject and will. Sometimes, we may contract the subject, will and have all together: I will have I'll have I'll've you will have you'll have you'll've Functional English (2024 to 27) 48  he will have he'll have he'll've she will have she'll have she'll've it will have it'll have it'll've we will have we'll have we'll've they will have they'll have they'll've Look at some more examples: You can call me at work at 8am. I will have arrived at the office by 8. They will be tired when they arrive. They will not have slept for a long time. "Mary won't be at home when you arrive." / "Really? Where will she have gone?" 10) Perfect continuous present Tense: We often use the Present Continuous tense in English. It is very different from the Present Simple tense, both in structure and in use.We use the Present Continuous to talk about: action happening now action in the future A. Format: sub+ have/has+V4+obj+ow B. Use: We use this tense to tell that an action started in the past and has continued up until now. C. Keywords: since, for E) Types Of Sentences Functional English (2024 to 27) 49  subject auxiliary main verb Types of verb (Helping Present sen. Verb) + I am speaking to you. You are reading this. - She is not staying in London. We are not playing football. ? Is he watching TV? Are they waiting for John? Continuous for action happening now a) for action happening exactly now I am eating my lunch. the pages are turning the candle is burning b) for action happening around now The action may not be happening exactly now, but it is happening just before and just after now, and it is not permanent or habitual. John is looking for a new job. Look at these examples: Muriel is learning to drive. I am living with my sister until I find an apartment. Functional English (2024 to 27) 50 Look at these examples: We're eating at Joe's Cafe tonight. We've already booked the table.. They can play tennis with you tomorrow. They're not working. When are you starting your new job? In these examples, a firm plan or programme exists before speaking. The decision and plan were made before speaking. 11) Perfect continuous past Tense: The Past Perfect Continuous is another tense that expresses the "past in the past".The Past Perfect Continuous tense is like the Past Perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example: Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been waiting for two hours. A. Format: sub + had + been + V4+obj+ow B. Use: We use this tense to tell that an action started in the past and has continued till the next past activity takes place. C. Keywords: since, for, before, when D. Example: John was very tired. He had been running. I could smell cigarettes. Somebody had been smoking. Suddenly, my car broke down. I was not surprised. It had not been running well for a long time. Had the pilot been drinking before the crash? E) Types Of Sentences Functional English (2024 to 27) 51  Subject auxiliary auxiliary main verb Types of verb verb sen. + I had been working. You had been playing tennis. - It had not been working well. We had not been expecting her. ? Had you been drinking? Had they been waiting long? Contraction with Past Perfect Continuous When we use the Past Perfect Continuous in speaking, we often contract the subject and the first auxiliary verb. We also sometimes do this in informal writing. I had been I'd been you had been you'd been he had been he'd been she had been she'd been it had been it'd been Functional English (2024 to 27) 52  we had been we'd been they had been they'd been He'd been drinking all day. It'd been pouring with rain. In negative sentences, we may contract the first auxiliary verb and "not": We hadn't been living there long. They hadn't been studying very hard. 12) Perfect continuous future Tense: A. Format: sub+ shall/will+have + been + V4+obj+ow B. Use: We use this tense to tell that an action is in progress over a period of time that will end in future. C. Keywords: since, for, before, when D. Examples: He'll be tired when he gets here. He'll have been travelling all day. How long will Jo have been working when he retires? Next month I'll have been studying Chinese for two years. Will you have been working when I arrive? He won't have been studying long enough to qualify. Next week Jane is going to swim from England to France. By the time she gets to France she'll have been swimming non-stop for over thirteen hours. Functional English (2024 to 27) 53  subject auxiliary auxilia auxiliary main Types verb ry verb verb verb of sen. + I will have been working for four hours. You will have been traveling for two days. - She will not have been using the car. We will not have been waiting long. ? Had you been drinking? Had they been waiting long? Functional English (2024 to 27) 54 Contraction with Future Perfect Continuous In speaking with the Future Perfect Continuous tense, we often contract the subject and WILL: I will I'll you will you'll he will he'll she will she'll it will it'll we will we'll they will they'll I'll have been driving for five hours. She'll have been watching TV. In negative sentences, we may contract with won't, like this: I will not I won't you will not you won't Functional English (2024 to 27) 55  he willnot he won't she will not she won't it will not it won't we will not we won't they will not they won't You won't have been drinking, will you? We won't have been driving for long. Basic concept of direct and indirect to report (verb): to tell somebody what you have heard or seen If we want to say what somebody has said, we basically have two options: 1. We can use the person's exact words - in quotation marks "..." if we are writing (direct speech). 2. We can change the person's words into our own words (reported speech). direct speech reported speech (exact words) (my words) He said: "I love you." He said that he loved me. The structure that we use when we report what another person has said, and reported speech rules. Now we will look at: Reported Statements Functional English (2024 to 27) 56  Backshift Time and Place Reported Questions Reported Requests Reported Orders Reported Statements Reported statements are one form of reported speech. direct statement reported statement He said, "I am sick." He said that he was sick. We usually introduce reported statements with "reporting verbs" such as "say" or "tell": He said (that)... He told me (that).. When we use our own words to report speech, there are one or two things that we sometimes change: pronouns may need to change to reflect a different perspective tense sometimes has to go back one tense (eg, present becomes past) - this is called backshift pronoun change tense change direct statement He said, "I am sick." reported statement He said he was sick. (that) Functional English (2024 to 27) 57 There are sometimes other things too that we may need to change, such as time or place. Look at these examples: pronoun tense time change change change direct Jane said, "I was sick yesterday." statement reported Jane said she had sick the day statement (that) been before. tense change place change direct statement She said, "I is hot here." t in reported statement She said it was hot there. (that) in We also sometimes need to think about the third person singular "s": pronoun person change direct statement Mary said, "I work in London." Functional English (2024 to 27) 58  reported statement Mary said she works in London. (that) Notice that in the above example, we do not change the tense. Usually, with the present simple, if something is still true now - she still works in London - we don't need to change it. Backshift in Reported Speech direct speech reported speech He said: "I feel sad." He said that he felt sad. In simple terms, the structure of reported speech is: reporting clause [+ conjunction] + reported clause reporting clause conjunction reported clause John said (that) he was hungry. John's original words: "I am hungry." We sometimes change the tense of the reported clause by moving it back one tense. For example, present simple goes back one tense to past simple. We call this change "backshift". When do we use backshift? We use backshift when it is logical to use backshift. So, for example, if two minutes ago John said "I am hungry" and I am now telling his sister, I might NOT use backshift (because John is still hungry): John just said that he is hungry. But if yesterday John said "I am hungry" and I am now telling his sister, I would likely use backshift: Yesterday, John said that he was hungry. Functional English (2024 to 27) 59  [We hope that John has eaten since yesterday ;-) ] So we use backshift SOMETIMES but not always. And WHEN we use backshift, here's how it works with these common tenses and modals: backshift this goes back to this present simple → past simple present continuous → past continuous past simple → past perfect present perfect past continuous → past perfect continuous can → could may might will would shall should Functional English (2024 to 27) 60 We NEVER use backshift when the original words are: past perfect could might would should Remember: If a situation is still true, backshift is optional. For a general truth there is no need for backshift. Look at the following examples. See if you can understand when and why they use backshift: tenses and direct speech reported speech modals present simple* He said, "I like coffee." He said (that) he likes coffee. He said (that) he liked coffee. present She said, "Moo is living here She said Moo is living there continuous* with us." with them. She said Moo was living there with them. past simple John said, "We bought a house John said they had bought a last week." house the week before. Functional English (2024 to 27) 61  present perfect Ram said, "I haven't seen Ram said he hadn't seen Avatar." Avatar. past continuous Wayne said, "Were you Wayne asked if I had been watching TV when I called." watching TV when he called. past perfect** Ati said, "I had never lived in Ati told us that he had never Thailand before." lived in Thailand before. can She said, "Tara can't swim." She said Tara couldn't swim. She said Tara can't swim. could** He said, "Could you swim He asked me if I could swim when you were three?" when I was three. may She said: "I may be late." She said she might be late. (and she was late) She said she may be late. (the time to be late has not yet arrived) might** She said, "I might come early." She said she might come early. Functional English (2024 to 27) 62  will She said, "I'll call you She said she would call me the tomorrow." next day. She said she will call me tomorrow. (tomorrow has not come) would** She said, "I wouldn't like to She said she would not like to go." go. shall He said: "Shall I open the He asked if he should open door?" the door. should** John said, "You should come John said I should go there. here." must The kidnapper phoned me and The kidnapper phoned me said: "You must come here and said I had to go there now." then. Ati said, "I must find a job next Ati said he must find a job year." next year. (next year hasn't come yet) have to Tara said: "I have to do my Tara said she had to do her homework." homework. Tara says she has to do her homework. Functional English (2024 to 27) 63 * if still true, change is optional (sometimes a matter of emphasis) ** never changes Time and Place in Reported Speech When we report something, we may need to make changes to: time (now, tomorrow) place (here, this room) direct speech reported speech She said, "I saw Mary yesterday." She said she had seen Mary the day before. He said: "My mother is here." He said that his mother was there. Time words If we report something around the same time, then we probably do not need to make any changes to time words. But if we report something at a different time, we need to change time words. Look at these example sentences: He said: "It was hot yesterday." → He said that it had been hot the day before. He said: "We are going to swim tomorrow." → He said they were going to swim the next day. Here is a list of common time words, showing how you change them for reported speech: direct speech reported speech now then, at that time today that day, on Sunday, yesterday Functional English (2024 to 27) 64  tonight that night, last night, on Sunday night tomorrow the next day/ the following day, on Sunday, today yesterday the day before/ the previous day, on Sunday last night the night before/ the previous night, on Sunday night this week that week, last week last month the month before/ the previous month, in May next year the following year, in 2014 two minutes ago two minutes before in one hour one hour later Place words If we are in the same place when we report something, then we do not need to make any changes to place words. But if we are in a different place when we report something, then we need to change the place words. Look at these example sentences: He said: "It is cold in here." → He said that it was cold in there. He said: "How much is this book?" → He asked how much the book was. Here are some common place words, showing how you change them for reported speech: Functional English (2024 to 27) 65  direct speech indirect speech here there, in Starbucks this that this book the book, that book, War and Peace in this room in the room, in that room, in the kitchen Reported Questions Reported questions are one form of reported speech. direct question reported question She said: "Are you cold?" She asked me if I was cold. He said: "Where's my pen?" He asked where his pen was. We usually introduce reported questions with the verb "ask": He asked (me) if/whether... (YES/NO questions) He asked (me) why/when/where/what/how... (question-word questions) As with reported statements, we may need to change pronouns and tense (backshift) as well as time and place in reported questions. But we also need to change the word order. After we report a question, it is no longer a question (and in writing there is no question mark). The word order is like that of a normal statement (subject-verb-object). Reported YES/NO questions Functional English (2024 to 27) 66 We introduce reported YES/NO questions with ask + if: direct question She said, "Do you like coffee?" reported question She asked if I liked coffee. Note that in the above example the reported question has no auxiliary "do". But there is pronoun change and backshift. Note that we sometimes use "whether" instead of "if". The meaning is the same. "Whether" is a little more formal and more usual in writing: They asked us if we wanted lunch. They asked us whether we wanted lunch. Reported question-word questions We introduce reported question-word questions with ask + question word: direct question He said, "Where do you live?" reported question He asked me where I lived. Note that in the above example the reported question has no auxiliary "do". But there is pronoun change and backshift. Look at these example sentences: direct question reported question YES/NO questions I said: "Can I help you?" I asked if I could help her. She said to us: "Did you feel She asked if we had felt cold. cold?" Functional English (2024 to 27) 67  He said: "Are your hands He asked whether my hands cold?" were cold. question-word He said: "Where are you He asked me where I was questions going?" going. He said: "Why didn't you He asked me why I hadn't said say something?" anything. He said: "When will they He asked when they would come?" come. He said: "Who has seen He asked me who had seen Avatar?" Avatar. He said: "How much might He asked me how much it it cost?" might cost. She said to me: "Where is She asked me where the the station?" station was. choice questions He asked, "Do you want tea He asked whether I wanted or coffee?" tea or coffee. He said, "Is the car new or He asked whether the car was second-hand?" new or second-hand. Reported Requests A request is when somebody asks you to do something – usually politely. Reported requests Functional English (2024 to 27) 68 are one form of reported speech. direct request reported request She said: "Could you open the window, She asked me to open the please?" window. He said: "Please don't smoke." He asked them not to smoke. We usually introduce reported requests with the verb "ask". The structure is very simple: ask + noun + to infinitive pronoun We asked the man to help us. They asked us to wait. Because we use the infinitive there is no need to worry about tense. But as with reported statements and reported questions, we may need to change pronouns as well as time and place in reported requests. Here are some examples: direct request reported request I said politely, "Please make less noise." I asked them politely to make less noise. She has often said to me, "Could you stay She has often asked me to stay the the night?" night. Functional English (2024 to 27) 69  They said to the architect: "We'd like you to They asked the architect to meet meet us here tomorrow." them there the next day. She will certainly say to John, "Please stay She will certainly ask John to stay for for lunch." lunch. She always says, "Please don't forget me." She always asks me not to forget her. Reported Orders An order is when somebody tells you to do something and you have no choice. It is not usually polite. It is a "command". Reported orders are one form of reported speech. direct order reported order She said: "Stop!" She told him to stop. We usually introduce reported orders with the verb "tell". The structure is very simple: tell + noun + to infinitive pronoun We told the man not to smoke. The policeman told us to follow him. Functional English (2024 to 27) 70 Because we use the infinitive there is no need to worry about tense. But as with reported statements and reported requests, we may need to change pronouns as well as time and place in reported orders. Here are some examples: direct order reported order She said, "Eat your food now!" She told the boy to eat his food right then. The policeman said: "Get out of your The policeman instructed us to get out of car!" our car. She said, "You must make the bed She told her husband to make the bed before you go to work!" before he went to work. The doctor said: "Don't smoke in here!" The doctor told them not to smoke in there. Notice above that we report a negative order by using not. Active and passive concept ○ What is a Sentence? In simple terms, a sentence is a set of words that contain: 1. a subject (what the sentence is about, the topic of the sentence), and 2. a predicate (what is said about the subject) The 4 Types of Sentence Structure Functional English (2024 to 27) 71 Simple Sentence Structure A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. (An independent clause contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought.) I like coffee. Mary likes tea. The earth goes round the sun. Mary did not go to the party. Compound Sentence Structure A compound sentence is two (or more) independent clauses joined by a conjunction or semicolon. Each of these clauses could form a sentence alone. I like coffee and Mary likes tea. Mary went to work but John went to the party. Our car broke down; we came last. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so Complex Sentence Structure A complex sentence consists of an independent clause plus a dependent clause. (A dependent clause starts with a subordinating conjunction or a relative pronoun, and contains a subject and verb, but does not express a complete thought.) We missed our plane because we were late. Our dog barks when she hears a noise. He left in a hurry after he got a phone call. Do you know the man who is talking to Mary? Functional English (2024 to 27) 72 Here are some common subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, because, before, how, if, once, since, than, that, though, till, until, when, where, whether, while Here are the five basic relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, whose Compound-Complex Sentence Structure A compound-complex sentence consists of at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. John didn't come because he was ill so Mary was not happy. He left in a hurry after he got a phone call but he came back five minutes later. Functional English (2024 to 27) 73 3.LISTENING Introduction: Learning a language means developing four skills- Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. What is LSRW? L-S-R-W is the four language learning skills, a set of four capabilities that allow an individual to comprehend and Development of Functional English produce spoken language for proper and effective interpersonal communication. These skills are Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing. In the context of a first-language acquisition, the four skills are most often acquired in the order of listening first, then speaking, then possibly reading and writing. Listening is an everyday affair. Listening is receiving language through the ears. Listening involves identifying the sounds of speech and processing them into words and sentences. When we listen, we use our ears to receive individual sounds (letters, stress, rhythm and pauses), and we use our brain to convert these into messages that mean something to us. Listening in any language requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some people need to work at harder than others. People who have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners. Listening in a second language requires even greater focus. "The better you listen, the luckier you will get." – Kevin Murphy "A good listener is not only popular everywhere, but after a while, he knows something." - Wilson Mizner Listening v/s Hearing: Hearing occurs when something disturbs the atmosphere, and this disturbance takes the form of a pressure wave that hits our eardrums in the form of sound. It sounds different. It thrives on hearing when they pay attention to the meaning of what we are hearing. Hearing is one thing, and hearing is another. Hearing is the physical process of sound entering the ear. But listening involves the brain, drawing attention to the topic and creating the meaning of the speech. Hearing is with the ears, and hearing is with the mind. Functional English (2024 to 27) 74  The listener is face to face with the speaker, either over the table or over the telephone line, as long as he is speaking and then turns off without recording the message. It is just listening. Intelligent listening requires an open mind, concentration, constant sorting, and mental association of the message heard, and note-taking or writing. Hearing is the first step in listening. Hearing is a mental and physical activity. By hearing, we receive the sound but do not use the mind. When we listen, we must also understand and remember. Listening is a natural process. Hearing is the act of detecting sound and receiving sound waves or vibrations through your ears, while listening is the act of hearing sounds and understanding what you hear. When you listen, you are consciously choosing what you want to hear. Hearing is one of the five senses, and it happens whether you like it or not, while in listening, you consciously choose what you want to hear. Hearing is then an involuntary act. Listening is a voluntary act. Process of Listening: To be a good listener, it is necessary to understand the various stages of listening given below: 1.Sensing At this stage, the listener can physically hear the message because the sound waves hit the eardrum, and as a result, the listener perceives the sound. The listener selects from multiple stimuli and translates the only stimulus that it considers essential into a message. 2. Recognising After hearing the physical sounds, the listener identifies and recognises the pattern of sounds. After this, sounds are recognised in a specific context. Here, the listener makes a conscious effort to recognise the word symbols that he/she hears. 3. Interpreting Now, the listener starts decoding the message. As he/she listens, he/she employs his/her values, beliefs, needs, ideas, etc., to interpret the speaker's message. Since he/she also pays attention to non-verbal messages, the accuracy of his/her interpretation of the message also increases. 4. Evaluating After he/she understands what the message actually means, he/she critically evaluates it. He/She assesses its strengths and weaknesses, its accuracy, reliability, and feasibility. 5. Responding At this stage, the listener is ready to respond and react. He/She shows his/her rejection or acceptance, understanding or confusion, or even difference through his/her non-verbal cues. 6. Remembering or Memorising This is the final stage of listening. Good listening enables the listener to retain the information for future reference. To increase retention, you need to make conscious efforts Functional English (2024 to 27) 75 by taking down proper notes, organising the matter sequentially, or retaining the data by using analogies or other associated visual symbols. Listening in any language requires focus and attention. It is a skill that some people need to work harder than others. People who have difficulty concentrating are typically poor listeners. Listening in a second language requires even greater focus.To become a fluent speaker in English, you need to develop strong listening skills. Listening not only helps you understand what people are saying to you. It also helps you to speak clearly to other people. It helps you learn how to pronounce words properly, how to use intonation, and where to place stress in words and sentences. This makes your speech easier for other people listening to you to understand! Types Of Listening APPRECIATIVE LISTENING: A person listens for what they like CRITICAL LISTENING: Listening with the intention of analyzing and giving feedback EVALUATIVE LISTENING: The listener tries to find value.“What is the purpose of the speaker? What will I gain?” EMPATHETIC LISTENING: Listening while imagining yourself in the same situation. SUPERFICIAL LISTENING: Listening for the sake of participating in the communication. The person simply hears sounds and tries to catch the crucial points.. COMPREHENSIVE LISTENING: Listening to simply understand a message, like in a class. A Good Listener Can: Understand others well Understand what is expected Collaborate better with clients, team members and supervisors Earn trust Avoid conflicts Show support and resolve issues Functional English (2024 to 27) 76 External Barriers: Other noises Interference Poor connection Visual distractions Internal Barriers: Lack of interest “I don’t need to know” attitude Assumptions(about a person or situation) Cultural or language difference Gender difference Use of jargons(complicated technical terms) Activity’s: Activity :1 You are driving a bus. In the first stoppage, two men wearing jeans and a little girl gets on. Next, an old lady gets off. Then, an elderly gentleman with a dog gets on. After that, the little girl gets off. The bus conductor asks for tickets. At the last stoppage, everyone gets off the bus. What Is The Driver’s Age? Test your active listening. Activity :2 1. Listen to English Radio You can receive English-language radio in most countries. Two international networks are the BBC World Service (from the UK) and Voice of America from (USA). Both of them have special programmes for learners of English. You can find information about times and frequencies for your country on their websites. 2. Watch English Television Functional English (2024 to 27) 77 TV is an excellent resource for hearing and listening to English. The pictures help you understand what is being said. If you don't have access to English-language TV, you may be able to watch TV on Internet. 3. Watch/Listen to English by Internet It is now a lot easier to hear English by Internet. If you're reading this at your computer or mobile device, you can probably listen to some English-language radio news right now, without even moving! And of course you can find endless videos in English on YouTube and similar websites (although the English is not always easy to follow). Check out our page on links to radio by Internet. 4. Listen to Songs in English Songs in English are everywhere, even on foreign-language radio and TV stations. Listen to them often. Buy some MP3s or CDs, or make recordings, and try to write the words for an entire song. But choose one that is not too difficult. That means it should be reasonably slow, and with real words sung clearly. Some pop songs are very unclear and are difficult even for native English-speakers to understand fully! Here are some easy songs for English learners. Functional English (2024 to 27) 78  Section II 4. SPEAKING Introduction: Speaking is the delivery of language through the mouth. To speak, we create sounds using many parts of our body, including the lungs, vocal tract, vocal chords, tongue, teeth and lips. This vocalized form of language usually requires at least one listener. When two or more people speak or talk to each other, the conversation is called a "dialogue". Speech can flow naturally from one person to another in the form of dialogue. It can also be planned and rehearsed, as in the delivery of a speech or presentation. Of course, some people talk to themselves! In fact, some English learners practice speaking standing alone in front of a mirror. Speaking can be formal or informal: Informal speaking is typically used with family and friends, or people you know well. Formal speaking occurs in business or academic situations, or when meeting people for the first time. Speaking is probably the language skill that most language learners wish to perfect as soon as possible. It used to be the only language skill that was difficult to practice online. This is no longer the case. English learners can practice speaking online using voice or video chat and services like Skype. They can also record and upload their voice for other people to listen to. Presentations in English A presentation is a formal talk to one or more people that "presents" ideas or information in a clear, structured way. People are sometimes afraid of speaking in public, but if you follow a few simple rules, giving a presentation is actually very easy. This tutorial guides you through each stage of giving a presentation in English, from the initial preparation to the conclusion and questions and answers. This tutorial is itself set out like a mini-presentation. You can follow it logically by