Computer Fundamentals Unit 1.pdf

Computer Fundamentals Course Code: MAT24-B- SE101 CO Number Course Outcome Describe the usage of computers and why computers are essential components in CO1 business and society....

Computer Fundamentals Course Code: MAT24-B- SE101 CO Number Course Outcome Describe the usage of computers and why computers are essential components in CO1 business and society. CO2 Learn about the Number System CO3 Create document by using MS-Word CO4 Use excel sheet to list, filter sort the data and represent in graphs CO5 Create Power point presentation by using MS-Power point Prepared By: Ankit Patnayak Teaching Assistant OP Jindal University  Course Description This course is an introductory course for the fundamentals of computing devices and reinforce computer vocabulary. This course provides hands-on use of Microsoft Office applications Word, Excel, Access and PowerPoint. Completion of the assignments will result in MS Office applications knowledge and skills  Unit 1: Computer Basics Von Neumann Architecture. Central. Memory Hierarchy, Random Access Memory (RAM), Types of RAM, Read Only Memory (ROM), Types of ROM, Characteristics of Computers, Evolution of computers, Generation of Computers, Classification of Computers, Computer System, Applications of Computers. Number Systems, Conversion between Number Bases, Arithmetic System, Signed and Unsigned Numbers, Concept of Overflow, Binary Coding, Logic Gates, Boolean algebra. Software, Hardware, Operating system concept.  Von Neumann Architecture Objectives: Understand the main components of the Von Neumann architecture. Learn how data and instructions are processed in a computer system. 1. Overview of Von Neumann Architecture The Von Neumann architecture also known as Von Neuman Model or Princeton architecture is a computer architecture based on a 1995 description by John von Neuman. It is a design for computers that uses the same place to store instructions and data. This design helps computers do many different tasks by following different sets of instructions. 2. Key Components: 1. Central Processing Unit (CPU): Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs arithmetic and logical operations. Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor. It fetches instructions from memory, decodes them, and executes them. Registers: Small, fast storage locations within the CPU used to hold data temporarily during processing. 2. Memory (RAM): Stores data and instructions that the CPU needs to execute. Both program instructions and data are stored in the same memory space. Von Neumann Architecture(cont.) 3. Input/Output Devices (IO) Input Devices: Devices like keyboards and mice that allow users to input data into the computer. Output Devices: Devices like monitors and printers that allow the computer to communicate information to the user. 4. System Bus Input Devices: Devices like keyboards and mice that allow users to input data into the computer. Output Devices: Devices like monitors and printers that allow the computer to communicate information to the user. 5. The Fetch-Decode-Execute-Cycle Fetch: Explanation-The CPU gets an instruction from the memory. Simple Terms- The chief picks up a recipe from the counter. Decode Explanation: The CPU figures out what the instruction means. Simple Terms: The chef reads and understands the recipe. Execute Explanation: The CPU performs the instruction. Simple Terms: The chef follows the recipe to prepare the dish.  Memory Heirarchy The memory hierarchy is a structure that uses various types of memory storage to achieve efficient data processing. Each level of the hierarchy has different speeds, costs, and capacities. Computers use different types of memory to store data and instructions. The memory hierarchy is a way of organizing these different types of memory so that the computer can work efficiently. Types of Memory: 1. Registers: Explanation: Very small, very fast memory locations inside the CPU. Simple Terms: Think of registers as the chef's hands, where the most immediate ingredients are held while cooking. 2. Cache: Explanation: A small, fast memory located close to the CPU, used to store frequently accessed data. Simple Terms: Imagine the cache as a small pantry near the kitchen where commonly used ingredients are kept for quick access. 3. Main Memory: Explanation: Larger than cache, but slower, used to store data and instructions that the CPU needs while running programs. Simple Terms: Think of RAM as the refrigerator in the kitchen where you store ingredients for meals you're about to cook. 4. Secondary Storage (Hard Drive or SSD) Explanation: Much larger but slower than RAM, used to store data and programs for long-term use. Simple Terms: Imagine the hard drive or SSD as the pantry or storage room where you keep all your groceries. 5. Tertiary Storage (Optical Discs, External Drives) Explanation: Used for backup and archival purposes, slower and less frequently accessed. Simple Terms: Think of this as the basement or attic where you store items you don't need often. Random Access Memory or RAM Definition: RAM stands for Random Access Memory. It is a type of temporary, high-speed storage used by the computer to hold data and instructions that the CPU needs while running programs. Characteristics: Volatile Memory: RAM loses all its data when the computer is turned off or restarted. Random Access: Any part of RAM can be accessed directly and instantly, unlike sequential storage. Role of RAM in a Computer Primary Function: Temporary Storage: RAM stores data and instructions that are currently being used or processed by the CPU. Speed: It provides fast access to this data, which speeds up the performance of applications and the overall system. How It Works: 1. Loading Data: When you open a program, its data and instructions are loaded from the hard drive (or SSD) into RAM. 2. Processing: The CPU accesses the program’s data from RAM because reading from RAM is much faster than reading from the hard drive. 3. Updating: As you use the program, RAM keeps track of temporary changes and current data.  Why RAM is important? Performance: More RAM allows your computer to run more applications simultaneously and handle larger files without slowing down. If you have insufficient RAM, the computer will use slower storage (like the hard drive) as temporary memory, which can significantly impact performance. RAM is a critical component in a computer, providing the fast, temporary storage needed for smooth and efficient operation of programs and processes. Understanding RAM helps explain how computers manage and process data efficiently.  Types Of RAM Dynamic RAM(DRAM): Common, cost-effective, needs refreshing. Static RAM(SRAM): Faster, more expensive, no refreshing needed. Synchronous DRAM(SDRAM): Synchronizes with CPU clock for improved performance. Double Data Rate SDRAM(DDR SDRAM): Faster than SDRAM, transfers data twice per clock cycle. GDDR(Graphics DDR): Specialized for graphics processing with high bandwidth. Read Only Memory or ROM Definition: ROM stands for Read-Only Memory. It is a type of non-volatile memory used to store data that does not change frequently. Unlike RAM, ROM retains its data even when the computer is turned off. Characteristics: Non-Volatile: Retains data without needing power. Read-Only: Traditionally, data in ROM is not intended to be written or modified under normal operation. Role of ROM in a Computer Primary Functions: Firmware Storage: ROM stores firmware, which is essential software needed to boot up and operate the computer. Permanent Instructions: Contains instructions for hardware initialization and basic input/output functions. ROM is a critical component in a computer, providing permanent storage for essential instructions and firmware. It differs from RAM in its volatility, write capabilities, and purpose. Understanding ROM helps students grasp how computers store and manage important data that remains unchanged.  Types Of ROM PROM (Programmable ROM): PROM is a type of ROM that can be programmed once after manufacturing. It is written to using a special device called a PROM programmer. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed multiple times using ultraviolet light. It has a small window on the chip that allows light to erase the data. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): EEPROM can be electrically erased and reprogrammed. Unlike EPROM, it does not require ultraviolet light for erasure. Flash Memory: Flash memory is a type of EEPROM that allows for faster data access and is commonly used in modern computers and devices.  Characteristics of Computers A computer is an electronic device designed to perform a variety of tasks by processing and storing data. It operates based on a set of instructions, called software or programs, which it follows to execute tasks In essence, a computer is a versatile tool that can be programmed to perform a wide range of tasks, making it an essential part of modern life and work.  Breakdown of what a computer is: 1. Hardware: This refers to physical components of a computer. 2. Software: This refers to the programs and operating systems that control the hardware and allow the computer to perform specific tasks 3. Processing: The computer processes data by following instructions from software 4. Computers handle and manipulate data efficiently, allowing for tasks such as calculations, data analysis, and information retrieval. 5. Connectivity: Modern computers can connect to other devices and networks, such as the internet, allowing for communication, data exchange, and access to online resources. Some Basic Characteristics of Computers 1. Speed: Computers can process data and perform calculations at incredible speeds, far surpassing human capabilities. They execute complex operations in fractions of a second. 2. Accuracy: Computers are designed to execute instructions with precision, resulting in highly accurate results when programmed correctly. Errors are typically due to incorrect programming or hardware malfunctions. 3. Storage: Computers have the ability to store vast amounts of data. This data can be retrieved, modified, and used as needed, with storage capacities ranging from gigabytes to terabytes. 4. Automation: Once programmed, computers can perform repetitive tasks automatically without needing continuous human intervention, increasing efficiency and productivity. 5. Versatility: Computers can be used for a wide range of applications, from simple calculations and word processing to complex simulations and data analysis. 6. Connectivity: Computers can connect to networks and the internet, allowing them to communicate with other devices and access a global pool of information. 7. Programmability: Computers can be instructed to perform various tasks through programming. Software can be written to customize the computer's functions to meet specific needs. 8. Data Manipulation: Computers can process, analyze, and transform data in multiple ways, enabling functionalities like sorting, filtering, and performing complex calculations. 9. Multitasking: Modern computers can handle multiple processes simultaneously, allowing users to perform various tasks at once, such as running several applications or performing background processes. 10. Consistency: Computers perform tasks consistently and reliably, as long as they are functioning correctly and the software is free of bugs. 11. Adaptability: Computers can be updated or modified with new software or hardware to meet changing requirements or to improve performance.  Evolution Of Computers 1940s: Development of the first electronic computers using vacuum tubes. 1950s: Introduction of transistors, leading to smaller and more efficient computers. 1960s: Integration of multiple transistors into integrated circuits, enabling more compact and reliable computers. 1970s: Emergence of microprocessors, which led to the development of personal computers and the beginning of the home computing era. 2000s-Present: Expansion into mobile computing, cloud computing, and AI technologies.  Generation Of Computers The evolution of computers has been marked by significant technological advancements and innovations over the decades. Here's a broad overview of how computers have evolved: 1. First Generation (1940s-1950s) Technology: Vacuum tubes. Characteristics: Large, bulky, and consumed a lot of electricity. They had limited processing power and were prone to frequent failures. Examples: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer). 2. Second Generation (1950s-1960s) Technology: Transistors. Characteristics: Smaller, more reliable, and more energy-efficient than vacuum tubes. Improved performance and processing speed. Examples: IBM 1401, CDC 1604. 3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s) Technology: Integrated Circuits (ICs). Characteristics: Further miniaturization of components led to smaller and more powerful computers. ICs allowed for the integration of multiple transistors onto a single chip, increasing reliability and performance. Examples: IBM System/360, PDP-8. 4. Fourth Generation (1970s-Present) Technology: Microprocessors. Characteristics: The advent of microprocessors allowed the creation of personal computers (PCs). These computers are smaller, more affordable, and more versatile. They include features like graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and support for networking. Examples: Intel 4004 (first microprocessor), Apple II, IBM PC. 5. Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Technology: Artificial Intelligence (AI) and advanced microprocessors. Characteristics: Focus on AI, machine learning, and advanced parallel processing. These computers can handle complex tasks such as natural language processing, autonomous systems, and big data analytics. Examples: Modern smartphones, quantum computers (still in experimental stages), AI-driven systems. The evolution of computers reflects a trend towards greater efficiency, miniaturization, and increased functionality, making them an integral part of modern life and industry.  Classification Of Computers Computers can be classified based on various criteria, including size, purpose, and technology. Here’s an overview of different classifications: 1. Based on Size and Capacity: Microcomputers: Small, personal computers designed for individual use. Ex, Desktop PCs, laptops, tablets, and smartphones Minicomputers: Mid-sized computers that are more powerful than microcomputers but less powerful than mainframes. Ex, Systems used in small to medium-sized businesses and industrial applications. Mainframes: Large and powerful computers used to handle and process large volumes of data simultaneously. Ex, IBM zSeries, Unisys ClearPath. Supercomputers: Extremely powerful computers designed to perform complex calculations at incredibly high speeds. Ex, IBM Blue Gene, Cray XT5. 2. Based on Purpose: General Purpose: Computers designed to perform a wide range of tasks using various applications and software. Ex, Personal computers, laptops, and workstations. Special-Purpose Computers: Computers designed for a specific task or application. Ex, Embedded systems, digital watches, and gaming consoles. Hybrid Computers: Computers that combine features of both analog and digital computers. Ex, Used in specialized applications like scientific research and industrial control systems. 3. Based on Technology: Analog Computers: Computers that use continuous physical quantities to represent information. Ex, Analog oscilloscopes, early flight simulators. Digital Computers: Computers that use discrete binary data (0s and 1s) to perform calculations and processes. Ex, Most modern computers and calculators. Hybrid Computers: Computers that incorporate both analog and digital components. Ex, Systems used in scientific research and complex industrial processes.  Computer System Computer System is basically a combination of hardware and software that can be programmed to perform a variety of tasks. A computer system is a basic, full-featured hardware and software configuration with all the components needed to perform computing operations. It enables the humans to input, process, and output the data effectively and systematically. Key Components of Computer Systems are: Hardware Software Operating System(OS) User Interface Networking Security Applications  Applications Of Computers Computers are very useful in the modern society and find applications in various domains/fields. Here are some key applications where computers are used are: Business and Finance Education Healthcare Communication Entertainment Research and Science Government Engineering and Manufacturing Transportation Personal Use  Number Systems Number systems are a way of representing numbers using symbols and rules. Different number systems are used in computing, mathematics, and everyday life. Number systems are fundamental in various fields such as mathematics, computing, engineering, and everyday life. They provide a structured way to represent and manipulate quantities, data, and information  Conversion Between Number Systems Here are some common number systems: Decimal System (Base-10): Uses digits 0-9. Each digit's position represents a power of 10. Example: 45610=4×102+5×101+6×100456_{10} = 4 \times 10^2 + 5 \times 10^1 + 6 \times 10^045610=4×102+5×101+6×100. Binary System (Base-2): Uses digits 0 and 1. Each digit's position represents a power of 2. Widely used in computing for representing data and instructions. Example: 10112=1×23+0×22+1×21+1×20=11101011_2 = 1 \times 2^3 + 0 \times 2^2 + 1 \times 2^1 + 1 \times 2^0 = 11_{10}10112=1×23+0×22+1×21+1×20=1110. Octal System (Base-8): Uses digits 0-7. Each digit's position represents a power of 8. Less common today but historically used in computing. Example: 348=3×81+4×80=281034_8 = 3 \times 8^1 + 4 \times 8^0 = 28_{10}348=3×81+4×80=2810. Hexadecimal System (Base-16): Uses digits 0-9 and letters A-F (where A=10, B=11,..., F=15). Each digit's position represents a power of 16. Used in computing for representing binary data and memory addresses. Example: 1A316=1×162+10×161+3×160=419101A3_{16} = 1 \times 16^2 + 10 \times 16^1 + 3 \times 16^0 = 419_{10}1A316=1×162+10×161+3×160=41910.  Arithmetic System An arithmetic system refers to the set of rules and operations used for performing arithmetic (mathematical operations involving numbers) within a particular number system. 1. Number Representation: Numbers are represented using digits (0-9) in our everyday decimal system (base-10). Each digit's position (units, tens, hundreds, etc.) represents its value multiplied by powers of 10. Example: 45610= 4*10²+5*10¹+6*10⁰ 2. Binary System (Base-2): In computing, binary (base-2) is used because computers work with electrical signals that are either on (1) or off (0). Binary digits are called bits (binary digits), and they represent powers of 2. Example: 10112=1*2³+0*2²+1*2¹+1*2⁰=1110  Signed and Unsigned Numbers Positive numbers are represented as unsigned numbers. So we don’t need to use +ve sign in front of them. However, when it comes to negative numbers we use –ve sign. This shows that number is negative and different from positive unsigned value. This is why it’s represented as signed numbers.  Concept of Overflow Overflow is like trying to fit more items into a box than it can hold. In computing, if a number is too large for the storage space, overflow happens, and the result might be incorrect. Understanding overflow helps ensure that calculations are accurate and manageable within the limits of the system. How Overflow Happens: 1. Fixed Size Storage: ○ Computers store numbers using a fixed number of bits. For example, an 8-bit system can only store numbers from 0 to 255. 2. Adding Too Much: ○ When you perform an arithmetic operation like addition, if the result exceeds the maximum value that can be stored, overflow occurs.  Binary Coding Binary coding is a way of representing information using only two symbols: 0 and 1. This is the foundation of how computers store and process data. The computer cannot understand the human language and therefore it converts the input to binary coding which consists of 0s and 1s. Binary to Decimal Conversion: ‘1011’ in binary Calculation: 1*2³=8 0*2²=0 1*2¹=2 1*2⁰=1 8+0+2+1=11 in decimal  Logic Gates Logic Gates: Basic building blocks of digital circuits that perform simple logical operations. Types: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR. Purpose: Used to create complex digital systems and processes in computers. These gates are essential for the operation of digital systems and help in the creation of everything from simple calculations to complex algorithms in computing.  Boolean Algebra Binary Variables: Can be 0 (false) or 1 (true). Basic Operations: AND: A AND B is 1 only if both A and B are 1. OR: A OR B is 1 if at least one of A or B is 1. NOT: NOT A flips the value of A (if A is 1, NOT A is 0, and vice versa). Key Laws: Identity: A AND 1 = A, A OR 0 = A Complement: A OR NOT A = 1, A AND NOT A = 0  Software and Hardware Hardware What It Is: The physical parts of a computer that you can touch. Examples: ○ Computer: The physical machine. ○ Keyboard: A device you use to type. ○ Monitor: The screen that shows you what the computer is doing. ○ Mouse: A device used to point and click on the screen. Software What It Is: The programs and instructions that tell the hardware what to do. It's intangible and exists as code or files. Examples: ○ Operating System: The main software that runs the computer (like Windows or macOS). ○ Applications: Programs like web browsers or games that you use to perform tasks.  Operating Systems An Operating System (OS) is the main software that manages a computer’s hardware and provides services for other software. It acts as an intermediary between you and the computer’s hardware. What it does? 1. Manages Hardware 2. Runs Program 3. Provides a user interface 4. Manages Files Examples: Windows, macOS, Linux Operating System Summary: The essential software that makes a computer work, manages hardware, and allows you to run programs and interact with the system.