Complete Study Guide PDF for English Language Education 4

STUDY GUIDE English Language Education 4 B.ED. UPPER PRIMARY LED 3880 Centre for Open, Distance and E-Learning Materials Development and Instructional Design Department Copyright Copyright©2017 University of Namibia. All rights reserved. No part of...

STUDY GUIDE English Language Education 4 B.ED. UPPER PRIMARY LED 3880 Centre for Open, Distance and E-Learning Materials Development and Instructional Design Department Copyright Copyright©2017 University of Namibia. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publishers. Edited and Published by Centre for External Studies University of Namibia, Windhoek Date of next revision: Centre for Open, Distance and E-Learning Materials Development and Instructional Design Department Private Bag 13245 Pioneers Park Windhoek Namibia Tel: +264 61 2063695 Fax: +264 61 2063016 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.unam.na Acknowledgements The Centre for Open, Distance and E-Learning Materials Development and Instructional Design Department wishes to thank those below for their contribution to this study guide: MÜLLER, Petronella Maria Author(s) KAMBONDE, Emily Kapena Content Editor(s) Mr Ismael /Uiseb Instructional Designer Technical Care of Template Quality Control  English Language Education 4 Contents About this study guide 1 How this study guide is structured.................................................................................... 1 Course overview 3 Welcome to English Language Education 4 LED 3880.................................................... 3 English Language Education 4 LED 3880—is this course for you?................................. 3 Exit Learning Outcomes.................................................................................................... 3 Timeframe......................................................................................................................... 4 Study skills........................................................................................................................ 4 Need help?......................................................................................................................... 5 Assignments...................................................................................................................... 6 Assessments....................................................................................................................... 6 Getting around this study guide 7 Margin icons...................................................................................................................... 7 Unit 1 8 The function of parts of speech in sentences..................................................................... 8 Introduction.............................................................................................................. 8 1. The function of words in sentences – parts of speech......................................... 9 2. Identifying parts of speech within sentences..................................................... 66 3. The same word with different functions in different sentences......................... 76 Unit summary.................................................................................................................. 79 References....................................................................................................................... 79 Unit 2 80 The sentence structure of the language............................................................................ 80 Introduction............................................................................................................ 80 1. What is syntax?.................................................................................................. 82 2. Writing of notes on the grammaticality of sentences......................................... 82 3. Constituents in sentences and how they interlink.............................................. 85 4. Identifying adjectival and adverbial phrases in simple sentences..................... 92 5. Applying different structures of sentences to suit different purposes in communication....................................................................................................... 98 6. Analyse complex sentences............................................................................. 100 7. Analyse compound sentences.......................................................................... 109 8. Changing of direct into indirect speech and vice versa................................... 112 9. Applying the negative form correctly in the language..................................... 118 10. Changing active voice into passive voice and vice versa.............................. 122 8 Contents Unit summary................................................................................................................ 127 References..................................................................................................................... 127 Unit 3 128 The semantic concepts of the language......................................................................... 128 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 128 1. What semantics?.............................................................................................. 129 2. Differentiating between homophones, homonyms and polysemous words..... 130 3. Recognising and substituting synonyms and antonyms................................... 136 4. Awareness and understanding of commonly confused words in the language 136 5. Applying words with literal and figurative meaning....................................... 148 6. Pragmatics (enrichment).................................................................................. 150 7. Discourse analysis (enrichment)...................................................................... 151 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 152 References..................................................................................................................... 152 Unit 4 153 Demonstration of the ability to use idiomatic language effectively.............................. 153 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 153 1. What is meant by idiomatic expressions?........................................................ 154 2. Differentiation between idioms, idiomatic expressions, sayings, adages and proverbs................................................................................................................ 154 3. Using of idiomatic expressions, sayings, adages and proverbs....................... 165 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 168 References..................................................................................................................... 168 Unit 5 169 Demonstration of the ability to use dictionaries and other available reference works.. 169 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 169 1. Using of appropriate kinds of dictionaries....................................................... 170 2. Teaching learners how to use a dictionary....................................................... 175 3. Demonstrating the ability to use other available reference works................... 186 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 189 References..................................................................................................................... 189 Unit 6 190 Discussing the features of, and evaluating different literature genres........................... 190 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 190 1. What is adult literature?................................................................................... 192 2. Using relevant terminology to analyse texts.................................................... 194 3. Using the appropriate terminology to discuss temporary dramas.................... 196 4. Differentiating between comedies and tragedies........................................... 200 5. Differentiating between a one act play and a drama with several acts and scenes................................................................................................................... 206 6. Differentiating between a stage drama and a radio drama............................. 206 7. Appreciating and discussing poems with the relevant terminology................ 209 8. Distinguish different types of poetry, e.g. sonnets, ballads, etc....................... 236  9. Differentiating between modern and traditional songs.................................... 265 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 267 References..................................................................................................................... 268 Unit 7 271 Use the official Subject Policy Guide for the language................................................. 271 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 271 1. The importance of the official Subject Policy Guide for the language............ 272 2. Organising your teaching according to the official Subject Policy Guide for the language............................................................................................................... 272 3. Design the appropriate files for the language.................................................. 276 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 278 References..................................................................................................................... 278 Unit 8 279 Design a scheme of work and plan a series of lessons.................................................. 279 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 279 1. What a scheme of work?.................................................................................. 280 2. The importance of a scheme of work in planning for a whole year................. 280 3. Compilation of a scheme of work based on the subject syllabus.................... 281 4. Plan a sequence of lessons according to a certain theme................................. 298 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 304 References..................................................................................................................... 305 Unit 9 306 Managing learning and learning environment............................................................... 306 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 306 1. Explaining aspects of semantics, parts of speech and sentence structure the syllabus is prescribing for Grades 4 – 7............................................................... 308 2. Choosing learning objectives that are appropriate and related to the content of lessons.................................................................................................................. 314 3. Competencies that are appropriate and related to the content of lessons........ 314 4. Analysing text books........................................................................................ 315 5. Describing different approaches to teaching grammar................................... 317 6. Managing learning effectively by using the inductive and deductive approaches in grammar lessons.............................................................................................. 319 7. Managing learning effectively by creating relevant stages of the grammar lesson.................................................................................................................... 321 8. Managing learning environments effectively.................................................. 326 9. Planning and presentation of lessons on semantics......................................... 335 10. Planning and presentation of lessons on idioms, the negative form, direct and indirect speech and active and passive voice in a learner-centred way............... 345 10 Contents Unit summary................................................................................................................ 354 References..................................................................................................................... 354 Unit 10 356 Design teaching aids...................................................................................................... 356 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 356 1. Creating teaching aids...................................................................................... 358 2. Using the chalk board effectively during lesson presentations........................ 368 3. Using of the teaching aids creatively in learner-centred lessons..................... 369 4. Using textbooks effectively in learner-centred lessons................................... 370 5. Evaluating the textbooks / texts / teaching material/syllabus suitable for Grade 4 – 7...................................................................................................................... 373 6. Adaptation and use the textbook creatively in lesson presentations................ 374 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 375 References..................................................................................................................... 375 Unit 11 376 Application of assistive technologies that could be used in the curriculum phase........ 376 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 376 1. The role of technology in providing reading-related material......................... 377 2. The ICT technologies as learning tools........................................................... 380 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 385 References..................................................................................................................... 385 Unit 12 386 Application of ICT’s for learners with special needs.................................................... 386 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 386 1. Identify learners with special needs................................................................. 387 2. Application of ICT’s for learners with special needs...................................... 390 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 395 References..................................................................................................................... 396 Unit 13 397 Facilitation of learning using different teaching methods including multi grade teaching397 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 397 1. What multi-grade teaching?............................................................................. 398 2. Grouping learners effectively in a multi grade class....................................... 399 3. Organizing learning activities effectively to accommodate multi grade teaching401 4. Application of different teaching methods effectively in a multi grade classroom............................................................................................................. 404 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 406 References..................................................................................................................... 406 Unit 14 407 Application of assessment of learning techniques......................................................... 407 Introduction.......................................................................................................... 407  1. The role and importance of assessment in maintaining quality education in support of national development.......................................................................... 409 2. The advantages and limitations of different approaches to assessment........... 409 3. The advantages and limitations of different methods of assessment............... 415 4. Evaluation of the syllabus’ assessment guidelines.......................................... 416 5. Setting and analysing specimen examination papers, tests, memoranda and other assessment instruments............................................................................... 418 6. Application of the guidelines to moderate an examination paper and memorandum....................................................................................................... 454 7. Assessment results to improve learning........................................................... 455 Unit summary................................................................................................................ 458 References..................................................................................................................... 458  English Language Education 4 About this study guide English Language Education 4 LED 3880 has been produced by Centre for Open, Distance and E-Learning. All study guides produced by Centre for Open, Distance and E-Learning are structured in the same way, as outlined below. How this study guide is structured The course overview The course overview gives you a general introduction to the course. Information contained in the course overview will help you determine:  If the course is suitable for you.  What you will already need to know.  What you can expect from the course.  How much time you will need to invest to complete the course. The overview also provides guidance on:  Study skills.  Where to get help.  Course assignments and assessments.  Activity icons.  Units. We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully before starting your study. The course content The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:  An introduction to the unit content. 1 2 About this study guide The function of parts of speech in sentences  Unit outcomes.  New terminology.  Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.  A unit summary.  Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.  Answers to Assignment and/or assessment, as applicable Resources For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide you with a list of additional resources at the end of this study guide; these may be books, articles or web sites. Your comments After completing English Language Education 4 we would appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might include comments on:  Course content and structure.  Course reading materials and resources.  Course assignments.  Course assessments.  Course duration.  Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.) Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance this course.  English Language Education 4 Course overview Welcome to English Language Education 4 LED 3880 This module builds on Language Education 1 and develops students’ language proficiency in terms of parts of speech, syntax and semantic issues of a particular language. This module builds on Language Education 2B and enables students to develop an in-depth theoretical understanding of adult literature (the drama and advanced types of poems), the ability to evaluate examples/ texts and to apply critical reading skills. Teaching methodology will form an integral part of this module. Micro-teaching and portfolio development in line with the faculty’s micro-teaching policy is required for this module. English Language Education 4 LED 3880—is this course for you? Prerequisite: None. Exit Learning Outcomes The exit learning outcomes for this course are:  Explain the function of parts of parts of speech in sentences (C1, C3)  Explain the sentence structure of the language (C1, C3)  Discuss the semantic concepts of the language (C1, C3) Exit Learning Outcomes  Demonstrate the ability to use idiomatic language effectively (C1, C3) 3 4 Course overview The function of parts of speech in sentences  Demonstrate the ability to use dictionaries and other available reference works (C1, C3)  Discuss features of and evaluate examples of different literature genres (C1, C3)  Use the official Subject Policy Guide for the language (C13)  Design a scheme of work and work out a series of lessons (C13)  Design lesson plans and present it (C 1, C 3*, C 4, C 6, C 10, C11, C12*)  Design teaching aids (C 7)  Apply assistive technologies that could be used in the curriculum phase (C13)  Apply ICT’s for learners with special needs (C13)  Facilitate learning using different teaching methods including multi grade teaching (C 6*, C 8, C 10, C 11, C 12)  Manage learning and the learning environment (C 8, C 10, C 12, C16)  Apply assessment of learning techniques (C 14, C 15, C, C 16) Timeframe This is a year module. Timeframe contains 6 periods for 7 weeks and 2 hour practical every week in semester one, 3 periods per week for fourteen weeks and 2 hour practical every second week in semester two How long? You should spend 5 hours of self-study per week. Study skills As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or domestic responsibilities. Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the web as a learning resource.  English Language Education 4 Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage in that learning. We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self- study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:  http://www.how-to-study.com/ The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books, using reference sources, test anxiety.  http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs. You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).  http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills, getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan. The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self- study skills” or similar. Need help? For routine enquiries please contact the Student Support Department at +264 61 206 3416. Help For further assistance you can go to your nearest Regional UNAM Centre. 5 6 Course overview The function of parts of speech in sentences Assignments At least 6 assessments Please see tutorial letter for instructions on the submission of assignments. Assignments Assessments Course materials may have activities and/or self-assessment exercises to check your own understanding of the material, but there are also tutor- marked assignments/tests which you have to submit. Please see tutorial letter for more details. Assessments  English Language Education 4 Getting around this study guide Margin icons While working through this study guide you will notice the frequent use of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to find your way around this study guide. A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study. Activity Assessment Assignment Case study Discussion Group activity Help Note it! Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills Summary Terminology Time Tip Computer-Based Learning Audio Video Feedback Exit Learning Basic Answers to Outcomes Competence Assessments 7 8 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences Introduction Different words, depending on where they are in the sentence, or what endings we attach to them, perform different functions in a sentence. Upon completion of this unit you should be able to:  explain the function of words in sentences – parts of speech;  identify parts of speech within sentences;  explain how the same word can have different functions in different sentences. Outcomes Oxford University Press. (2013). Oxford School Spelling, Punctuation and Grammar Dictionary. Great Clarendon street, Oxford OX2 6DP, Great Britain: Bell & Bain Ltd, Glasgow. Prescribed Reading nouns: Nouns are names we give to things, places, feelings, thoughts, people, animals and qualities that make up our experience of the world. determiner: When you use a noun in English, you have to say Terminology how the noun relates to objects, events, or concepts in the real world. This is usually done by putting a determiner in front of the noun. definite article: The definite article “the” tells you that you should already know what the noun refers to. indefinite article: The indefinite article “a” tells you that you probably do not know what the noun refers to.  English Language Education 4 adjectives: Adjectives tell you something about nouns; they qualify the nouns verbs: Verbs are words which describe actions, thought, speech, and other activities pronouns: Pronouns are words that are used to refer to people or things without naming or describing them. adverbs: Adverbs are words which give more information about verbs prepositions: Prepositions are words such as by, for, into or with and are used before nouns, pronouns or noun phrases. conjunctions: Conjunctions are joining words and join a main clause and a subordinate clause or main sentences interjections: Interjections are words used to express emotional states. They can stand alone: Oh! Wow! Ouch! Oops! Hey! numbers: Numbers are counting words 1. The function of words in sentences – parts of speech The functions of words in sentences can be one of the following:  A group of words can have the functions of subject, object or indirect object in a sentence.  Another group of words can have the function of the action being done.  A following group can have the function of modifiers – to describe other words.  A last group of words are called function words. These words don't have a lexical meaning in the dictionary, but serve to indicate the ways other words relate to each other. 1.1 Nouns A certain group of words has the function of the "doer" or "actor” in the sentence. The "doer" or "actor” in the sentence is called the subject of the sentence. The part of speech that has this function is the noun. Nouns also have the function of the direct object or the receiver of the action. Nouns also can have the function of the indirect object or the secondary receiver of the action. This will be 9 10 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences explained in detail in the next unit. Nouns are names we give to things, places, feelings, thoughts, people, animals and qualities that make up our experience of the world. We explain and define the world around us by the many different nouns we use. 1.1.1 Kinds of nouns Nouns are either CONCRETE or ABSTRACT. Concrete nouns identify things which can be physically seen or touched, like table; chair; hospital; man; child; school ; people ; dog. Abstract nouns identify things which cannot be physically seen or touched, like love, hate, philosophy, reduction, necessity, prosperity, poverty. A. Concrete Nouns Concrete nouns can be divided into proper nouns and common nouns. 1) Proper nouns Proper nouns are the actual names we give to particular people, places, organizations, products, days of the week, months, jobs titles, and many other things. They are written with a capital letter, such as: Peter, Mary (names of people) Windhoek, Swakopmund (cities) the Queen Mary (a ship) Nero (a dog) the Waterberg (a mountain) Laurent Desiree Kabila Street (street names) Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday (days of the week) 2) Common nouns Common nouns name things, types of people, places, and animals that have a physical existence. They are called ‘common’ nouns because they make up the bulk of the nouns we use. They are the words we use to IDENTIFY our physical surroundings in all its variety. For example: dog, cat, forest, car, man, woman, grandfather – and all general names of people, things and animals. B. Abstract Nouns Abstract nouns name feelings, qualities, and ideas and ‘things’ that have no physical existence. They describe things you cannot touch but which you can feel, think or experience. Examples:  I felt an intense hunger.  Their joy was overwhelming.  English Language Education 4  Your failure gives me no satisfaction.  We have to come up with some new ideas!  Other examples: love, hate, philosophy, reduction, necessity, prosperity, poverty. C. Collective Nouns Collective nouns are the names given to groups of people, animals, or things which are seen as a whole or as a group. Collective nouns do not refer to individual people or animals, but to particular classes of people or animals. Examples:  A crowd of onlookers gathered at the scene of the accident.  The herd of cows was grazing in the field.  A flock of birds flew towards the pier.  The interviewing panel took a long time over their decision.  a pack of wolves; a gang of murderers, a fleet of ships, etc. 1.1.2 Gender Nouns are MASCULINE, FEMININE, NEUTER or COMMON gender. A. Masculine and Feminine Masculine forms normally have feminine endings. Many masculine forms have a feminine ending in –ess, such as: author – authoress; tiger – tigress. A few masculine forms have feminine forms in –ix: executor – executrix; testator - testatrix, aviator – aviatrix. Note the endings –ine and –enne in hero – heroine; comedian – comedienne. Many masculine forms have a completely different feminine form: man – woman; dog – bitch; lad – lass; jack (ass) – jenny (ass); ram – ewe; stallion – mare; sir – madam, etc. 11 12 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences Now give the feminine forms of the following: Master Activity Priest Prince Baron Lion God Find the answers in the following table! Feedback Do you know the meaning of the following masculine and feminine nouns? FEMININE MASCULINE FEMININE MASCULINE abbot abbess instructor instructress actor actress Jew Jewess adventurer adventuress landlord landlady ambassador ambassadress lion lioness bachelor spinster lord lady barman barmaid manager manageress baron baroness manservant maidservant beau belle masseur masseuse benefactor benefactress master mistress billy-goat nanny-goat monk nun boar sow murder murderess bridegroom bride negro negress buck doe nephew niece bull cow peacock peahen cock hen poet poetess cockerel pullet policeman policewoman  English Language Education 4 cock-sparrow hen-sparrow postman postwoman colt filly priest priestess conductor conductress prince princess count countess prophet prophetess deacon deaconess ram ewe drake duck shepherd shepherdess duke duchess sir madam earl countess sire (horse) dam emperor empress stag hind executor executrix stallion mare fiancé fiancée steer heifer fox vixen stepfather stepmother gander goose stepson stepdaughter giant giantess steward stewardess god goddess tom-cat she-cat godson goddaughter testator testatrix hart roe tiger tigress headmaster headmistress turkey-cock turkey-hen he-goat she-goat tutor governess heir heiress uncle aunt hero heroine waiter waitress horse mare widower widow horseman horsewoman wizard witch host hostess wife husband A. NEUTER or COMMON gender Nouns which may be neither masculine nor feminine are common gender. Here are some of them: baby, child, lamb, cub, calf, foal, kitten, chicken, whelp, etc. Things are neuter gender: car, sand, iron, book, house, etc. 1.1.3 Number “Number” refers to the plural forms of nouns.  century – centuries; cherry – cherries, etc. 13 14 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences  Nouns ending in –ay, -ey or –oy form the plural by adding-s, e.g. quay – quays; alloy – alloys; key – keys.  Most of the nouns ending in –f or –fe make the plural in –ves, e.g. half – halves; calf – calves; knife – knives; sheaf – sheaves, etc. NOTE:  Some of the nouns ending in –f form the plural in –s or –ves, e.g. wharfs, wharves; hoofs, hooves.  Some of the nouns ending in –f form the plural by adding –s, e.g. cliffs, bluffs, roofs, chiefs, handkerchiefs, reefs, beliefs.  Some nouns make a plural by changing a vowel within the word, e.g. man – men; woman – women.  The following are some of the unusual plurals: ox – oxen; child – children; radius – radii; terminus – termini or terminuses; appendix – appendices or appendixes; crisis – crises; oasis – oases; basis – bases; axis – axes; aquarium – aquariums or aquaria; formula – formulae or formulas; larva – larvae, etc.  In the case of compound nouns, you should determine what the word really means, and then add the plural form to the most important part of the word. For example, a father-in- law is a father; and a postmaster-general is a postmaster. Therefore the plural forms are postmasters-general and fathers-in-law. Write down the singular form of: SINGULAR PLURAL Geese Activity dormice Mice Lice Feet Teeth Here is the feedback:  English Language Education 4 PLURAL SINGULAR goose Geese dormouse dormice mouse Feedback Mice louse Lice foot Feet tooth Teeth  Some nouns have only a plural form, some taking singular verbs and others plural verbs.  These generally have a singular verb: news, mumps, measles, billiards, mathematics, physics, athletics, darts, means, innings, riches, alms, gallows.  These generally have a plural verb: scissors, bellows, trousers, thanks, tidings, suds, assets, banns, pincers, goods, tongs, politics, pyjamas, spectacles, victuals. NOTE: If you are in doubt, use a good dictionary.  Abstract nouns (love, charity) and material nouns (sand, iron, wood) have no plural forms, except when they are used in special meanings, e.g. the sands of time; our hopes; fears; joys; sorrows.  Some nouns have a singular form but a plural meaning and are used with plural verbs, e.g. cattle, people, vermin, poultry, etc. 15 16 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences Some plurals have special meanings, differing from the singular. Use these in sentences to show that you know their special meanings: USE YOUR DICTIONARY! Activity pains ………………………………………………………………………. brethren …………………………………………………………………… dice ……………………………………………………………………….. airs ………………………………………………………………………... means …………………………………………………………………….. goods ……………………………………………………………………… clothes …………………………………………………………………….. forces ……………………………………………………………………... compasses ………………………………………………………………… respects …………………………………………………………………… irons ………………………………………………………………………. bearings …………………………………………………………………...  English Language Education 4 pains: (to make a lot of effort) She is at pains to point out how much work she has done. I went to great pains to select the best staff available. Brethren: (used as a form of address to members of an organization or religious group): Brethren, let us stand together! Feedback dice: (to do something extremely dangerous and silly) You’re dicing with death driving at that speed on icy roads. dice: (something that people say when you may not or cannot do something) I asked if we could go to the party, but Mom said no dice. airs: (false ways of behaving that are intended to make other people feel that you are important and belong to a high social class ) He was always putting on airs and graces. She's got no reason to give herself airs and graces. means: (a method or way of doing something) The family had no means of support (= way of getting money). (money, for example from an income, that allows you to buy things) [ + to infinitive ] He has the means to buy half the houses in the street if he wanted to. You must live within your means, not beyond your means. ( income which you have from investments , etc. rather than from a job) As a woman of independent means, she spent most of her life in voluntary work. goods: (food, such as coffee and flour, that is solid and dry) I bought the goods for the excursion. clothes: (a set of clothes as well as the ones that you are wearing) You'll need a change of clothes if you're staying overnight. clothes horse: (slightly disapproving: a person, especially a woman, who is employed to wear expensive and fashionable clothes) She is a clothes horse. forces: (the forces that decide price levels in an economy or trading system whose activities are not influenced or limited by government) The action of market forces means that the cost of something raises if demand for it rises and the amount available remains constant. compasses: (a V-shaped device which is used for drawing circles or measuring distances on maps) Use your compasses to draw the circle. [Compass - a device for finding direction] 17 18 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences (Feedback continue) respects: (polite formal greetings) Please convey/give my respects to your parents. pay your respects (1. to visit someone in order to welcome them or talk to them) We went to pay our respects to our new neighbours. (2. Also Feedback pay your last respects: to honour someone after their death, usually by going to their funeral) Friends and relatives came to pay their last respects to Mr Clarke. irons: (chains tied around someone to prevent them from escaping or moving) It was common practice for the prisoners to be clapped in irons (= tied with chains). bearings: get/find your bearings to discover your exact position: The road system was so complicated that we had to stop to get our bearings several times. to succeed in becoming familiar with a new situation: It takes a while to get your bearings when you start a new job. lose your bearings: (If you lose your bearings, you do not know where you are) They lost their bearings in the dark. 1.1.4 Diminutives In English diminutives are used to show smallness or affection. There are two main kinds of diminutives: 1 Those to which one of the following suffixes is added: -ie or -y -en -ette -let -ling -ock cat – cigar - ring - goose - hill - Frank – kitten cigarette ringlet gosling hillock Frankie chick - kitchen - brook – seed – bull - aunt - chicken kitchenette brooklet seedling bullock auntie maid - book - duck - Tom - maiden booklet duckling Tommy -el -et -kin -le -ule lock - napkin speckle globule dame - locket (piece of (a small (a small damsel cloth) or slight globe) mark) river – manikin (a granule Morse - rivulet little man; (small morsel (small dwarf) grain) stream) 2 Those which use a different word: Adult – child; cow – calf; sheep – lamb  English Language Education 4 Fill in the correct word from this list: gosling, cub, chicken, owlet, piglet, duckling, leaflet, lamb Activity A young lion is called a A young pig is called a ………………………………. ………………………………. A small leaf is called a A young goose is called a ………………………………. ………………………………. A young goat is called a A young owl is called a ………………………………. ………………………………. A young duck is called a A young fowl is called a ………………………………. ………………………………. Use your dictionary to find the meanings of the words in the list and complete the exercise. Feedback 1.2 Determiners When you use a noun in English, you have to say how the noun relates to objects, events, or concepts in the real world. This is usually done by putting a determiner in front of the noun. The most common determiners are the (often called the definite article) and ‘a’ or ‘an’ (the indefinite article). 1.2.1 The definite article The definite article tells you that you should already know what the noun refers to. So that when someone says I bought the table yesterday, you know which table they are talking about. a) You use the definite article ‘the’ in the beginning of noun groups to refer to:  a person or thing that is known about: He said that she ought to see the doctor.  a person or thing that has just been mentioned: The information that you have given us just now, is very valuable. 19 20 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences  a person or thing that you are going to give details about: One of the most important minerals the body needs is magnesium. b) You can also use the in front of a singular noun to refer to all the people or things of that type:  The Owambo people live in the northern part of Namibia. OR  The koala bear lives in trees. c) You can use the in front of a surname (proper noun) in the plural to refer to a married couple or to a whole family who have that surname:  Some friends of her called the Smiths... d) You use the in front of an adjective to make it a noun to refer to someone or something that the adjective describes:  This is the institution for the mentally handicapped.  The wounded were given first aid. e) You can use the in front of ordinal numbers, especially in dates:  It is today Tuesday, February the twenty third. f) You can use the in front of numbers when they refer to decades:  In Namibia in the thirties of the previous age there was a terrible epidemic of flue. g) You can use the in front of two comparative adjectives or adverbs when you are describing how one amount or quality changes in relation to another:  The more I hear about him, the less I like him.  The longer we look at it, the more interesting we find it. h) You can emphasize the to indicate that something or someone is the most famous, most important, or best thing of their kind:  So, it’s the club in town. 1.2.2 The indefinite article The indefinite article tells you that you probably do not know what the noun refers to. When someone says I bought a table yesterday, you do not know which table they are talking about. The plural form will be: I bought tables yesterday. Apples are healthy to eat. We don’t use umbrellas a lot in Namibia. THIS IS THE ONLY PLACE WHERE YOU USE NOUNS WITHOUT AN ARTICLE. When to use ‘a’ or ‘an’: i. You use an in front of nouns starting with vowels, e.g. an apple; an elevator; an instrument; an observation; an umbrella OR before words starting with an h: In an hour’s time  English Language Education 4 ii. You can use ‘a’ or ‘an’ instead of the number ‘one’: a year ago...; an hour ago... iii. You can use a of an in front of uncountable nouns when they are preceded by adjectives or followed by words that describe the uncountable noun more fully... a happiness that he couldn’t quite hide. iv. You use the indefinite article "a" or "an" in front of names of people when you are referring to someone who you do not know personally: You don’t know a Mrs Burton, do you? Use ‘a’; ‘an’ or ‘the’: 1) This is.......... wonderful world we live in. 2).............. apple a day keeps.............. doctor away. 3) Why do you look so down in............... mouth today, James? Activity 4) That man is................. double-faced hypocrite. 5).............. friend in need, is.............. friend indeed. 6)............... fault confessed is half redressed. 7) He had to pay through.................. nose for a new car. 8).............. eye for............. eye and............ tooth for............... tooth is my motto. 9) He is up to................. eyes in debt at the moment. 10) I have had................... eye on that farm for................... long time. 11) Germs cannot be seen with................... naked eye. 12)............. wily crook threw dust in................. eyes of the officers of the law. 13)............... penny for your thoughts. 14)................ ounce of discretion is worth................... pound of wit. 15) The rebels entered.................. town armed to................... teeth. Here is the feedback: 21 22 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences Use ‘a’; ‘an’ or ‘the’: 1) This is a wonderful world we live in. 2) An apple a day keeps the doctor away. 3) Why do you look so down in the mouth today, James? Feedback 4) That man is a double-faced hypocrite. 5) A friend in need, is a friend indeed. 6) A fault confessed is half redressed. 7) He had to pay through the nose for a new car. 8) An eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth is my motto. 9) He is up to the eyes in debt at the moment. 10) I have had an eye on that farm for a long time. 11) Germs cannot be seen with the naked eye. 12) The wily crook threw dust in the eyes of the officers of the law. 13) A penny for your thoughts. 14) An ounce of discretion is worth a pound of wit. 15) The rebels entered the town armed to the teeth. 1.3 The Adjective An adjective (ADJ) tells you something about the noun. This includes its:  Size: The small dress....,  Quality: The expensive dress...,  Colour: The blue dress.., and  Type: The evening dress.... There are two main things to notice about adjectives: 1) Their position Most adjectives can have two positions in a clause. They can come before a noun, as in the pretty blue dresses; a grey, majestic mountain. These adjectives are used attributively: they qualify the nouns dresses and mountain and they usually stand before the nouns. (In the following case the adjectives are also used attributively, because they qualify the noun – although they stand directly after the noun: the grey mountain, majestic and gloomy. An adjective is used predicatively when it forms part of the predicate after copulative verbs such as is (be), was (be), appear, seem or look: Sally appears frightened; Henry seems happy; the girl is intelligent; Peter was worried. 2) Their meaning Adjectives have comparative and superlative forms, which are formed either by adding the endings “–er” and “–est” to the word or by using more and most in front of it.  English Language Education 4 The positive degree simply states the quality, e.g. a great man; a fast worker; a shy maiden; a pretty girl; a quick temper. Other examples: a delightful song; a terrible disaster. The comparative degree indicates that the person (animal, thing) described has more of the particular quality than another person (animal, thing), e.g. a greater man; a faster worker; a shyer maiden; a prettier girl; a quicker temper. Other examples: a more delightful song; a more terrible disaster. The superlative degree indicates that the person, etc. described has more of the particular quality than any others with whom he (she, it, etc.) is compared, e.g. the greatest man; the fastest worker; the shyest maiden; the prettiest girl; the quickest temper. Other examples: the most delightful song; the most terrible disaster. NOTE: a) Adjectives of one syllable and many of two syllables form the comparative and superlative by adding –er or –r for the comparative and –est or –st for the superlative. Here you must watch the spelling. For example: i. –y at the end is changed into –i as in silly – sillier – silliest, with exceptions such as sly – slyer – slyest; gay – gayer – gayest; grey – greyer – greyest; coy – coyer – coyest, and others where the –y is preceded by a vowel. ii. Very often the last letter of the positive must be doubled e.g. big – bigger – biggest; thin – thinner – thinnest; fat – fatter – fattest; sad – sadder – saddest. b) Many adjectives of two syllables and all of more than two syllables form the comparative and superlative by putting more and most before the positive: a more suitable gift – a most suitable gift; a more handsome (handsomer) man – the most handsome (handsomest) man. The following are some of the adjectives of two syllables which take –er and est for the comparative and superlative. Complete the following table: 23 24 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences Positive Comparative degree Superlative degree degree able Activity angry busy chilly clever clumsy comely common cruel dainty deadly dirty feeble friendly Positive Comparative degree Superlative degree degree abler ablest able angrier angriest angry Feedback busier busiest busy chillier chilliest chilly cleverer cleverest clever clumsier clumsiest clumsy comelier comeliest comely commoner commonest common crueller cruellest cruel daintier daintiest dainty deadlier deadliest deadly dirtier dirtiest dirty feebler feeblest feeble friendly friendlier friendliest  English Language Education 4 c) The comparative is followed by ‘than’, never by ‘as’:  Mary is a comelier girl than Jane. d) The positive is followed by as: Mary is as comely as Jane. e) The superlative is often followed by of, e.g. Helen is the loveliest of all the girls. f) When only two persons (things) are compared, always use the comparative, even if it is not followed by “than”:  Peter is the cleverer of the two boys.  Of the two cars this is the better one. g) When a comparison is made with three or more things, we use the superlative:  Of the three men he is the greatest. NOTE: i. Old has as comparatives older and elder and as superlatives oldest and eldest. The general forms are older and oldest, while elder and eldest are only applied to members of the same family. Elder is never followed by ‘than’:  This man is older than that one, and that is the oldest inhabitant of this town.  Mary is older than her sister Jane.  Mary is the elder of the two sisters.  Helen is the eldest of the children. ii. Well is mostly an adverb, but it is sometimes used as an adjective meaning healthy or in good condition. In this sense it is only used predicatively:  I feel well today; she is well again after her operation. iii. She is ill; she feels sick. The sick man was taken to the doctor. iv. Late – later (latter) – latest (last)  You are late for school and he is still later, while Constance is latest of all.  Of James and Henry I like the latter better; the former is too conceited.  He is the last living member of the famous family.  Have you got the latest edition of the newspaper? v. Farther is mostly used of distance, while further is used in the sense of additional:  Sally can swim a farther distance than Jimmy. 25 26 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences  Have you any further remarks to make? vi. Beware of a double comparative and superlative. DO NOT WRITE OR SAY such silly things as: She is the most prettiest girl I know. OR: She is more lovelier than her sister. The correct way to write it is: She is the prettiest girl I know. AND: She is lovelier than her sister. h) A few adjectives form the comparative and superlative in an unusual or irregular manner:  Good – better – best;  Well (healthy) – better (best cannot be used in the sense of healthiest)  Bad – worse – worst;  Ill – worse – worst;  Many (much) – more – most;  Old – older (elder) – oldest (eldest);  Far – farther (further) – farthest (furthest);  Late – later (latter) – latest (last);  Little – less – least;  Little (=small) – smaller – smallest. i) big – bigger – biggest; large – larger – largest; great – greater – greatest. Do you know how these are used?  large and big mean more or less the same and are used of size, but big is also used in the sense of important, especially in a small circle:  Mr Venter is a big man in this district, although he is only 1,5 metres tall.  Great usually means noteworthy, famous, important:  The festival was an event of great importance.  Einstein was a great scientist and Shaw a great writer.  Also note the use of great in the following examples:  Little Red Riding Hood saw a great big wolf.  What a great big ass you are!  I have never seen a greater mess than your work. j) Pronouns after the positive and comparative:  I am bigger than he.  You are taller than she.  We are wealthier than they.  She is cleverer than I (or me).  They are older than we (not us).  She is as tall as (I, you, he, she).  We are as unhappy as they.  English Language Education 4 1.4 Pronouns A pronoun is a word that is used to refer to people or things without naming or describing them. Pronouns are used in similar ways to noun groups, and so a pronoun can be the subject, object, or complement of a clause, or object of a preposition. Most pronouns are used in place of complete noun groups, and so they are not normally used with determiners or adjectives. 1.4.1 Personal pronouns Personal pronouns refer to people and things. When the pronoun is the subject of a clause, the words I, you, he, she, it, we, they are used. When the pronoun is the object of a clause, or when it comes after a preposition, the words me, you, him, her, it, us and them are used. Example: I gave him a CD for Christmas and he gave me a book. 1.4.2 Possessive pronouns The possessive pronoun is used to show who something belongs to. They are used to show ownership. The possessive pronouns are: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs. Possessive pronouns stand in for nouns or they can stand on their own. According to the Oxford School Spelling, Punctuation and Grammar Dictionary (2013) and the Oxford English Dictionary (2008) and Collins English Dictionary (1998) they are not to be confused with the possessive determiners my, our, your, her, their, which are used with nouns to show ownership. Note the difference between the sentences: I left mine in the classroom. I left my book in the classroom. Mine is the possessive pronoun and stands in for my book. My is the possessive determiner that tells us whose book it is. However, we accept when these determiners are also called possessive pronouns. Read the following extract out of COLLINS COBUILD Essential English Dictionary (1989, p. 210): 27 28 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences DETERMINERS: The determiners this, that, these and those, and the possessive determiners my, your, his, her, its, our and there are like the. In various ways these words tell you that you should be able to identify exactly what the noun refers to. You use this and these to refer to things that you consider to be relatively close to you. You use that and those to refer to things that you consider to be relatively far from you. The possessive determiners tell you who something belongs to. So that your book belongs to you and my book belongs to me. The determiners all, some, both, any, another, each, every, either, neither and no are like a – they do not refer to specific items that you can identify individually. Most determiners can be used with any noun, whether it is singular or plural or uncountable. There are, however, some which cannot. The determiners a, another, each, every, either, and neither are normally used with singular countable nouns, as in: She poured herself another cup of tea and I kept records of each child. These and those are normally used with nouns in the plural, as in: Who are those men over there? This and that are used with uncountable nouns or singular countable nouns, as in: I’ve used that information many times since then and That night Kunta slept well. The determiner some can be used with uncountable nouns or plural countable nouns, as in: I bought some meat for dinner and We’ve got some friends coming. (Out of COLLINS COBUILD ESSENTIAL ENGLISH DICTIONARY (1989, p. 210) – helping learners with real English) Make sentences with all the possessive pronouns and possessive determiners: POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE DETERMINERS mine my Activity ……………………………………… ……………………………………… yours your ……………………………………… ……………………………………… his his ……………………………………… ……………………………………… hers her ……………………………………… ……………………………………… its its ……………………………………… ……………………………………… ours our ……………………………………… ……………………………………… theirs their ……………………………………… ………………………………………  English Language Education 4 Study the examples above and make your own sentences. Feedback 1.4.3 Relative pronouns  Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses.  The relative pronouns are: who, whom, which, that. The pronouns who, whose and whom refer back to people; which refers back to things and that refers back to either people or things. They refer back to something previously mentioned in a sentence and should be placed very close to the word they refer to. At the same time these words introduce subordinate clauses in a sentence, giving extra information about the people or things they refer to.  He was the man who stood for the council.  I admired the painting, which had been painted in 1908.  They recognized the actress, whom they had seen in a play.  The trees that grew in the garden provided a lot of shade.  She’s the woman whose lottery ticket was lost. 29 30 Unit 1 The function of parts of speech in sentences As these examples show, relative pronouns may be used to join one part of a sentence to another part. Along with conjunctions, relative pronouns are very important linking words in longer sentences. Fill in the correct pronoun: 1) I have not yet met the lady............................. praises you are singing. 2) The player........................... won the match for us was the fly- Activity half. 3) He.................................. will not work, shall not eat. 4) The book................................ I wrote last year has not yet been published. 5) The plants................................ he bought at the auction all died. 6) The boy to....................................... I gave the message has disappeared. 7) The salary for............................... I work is less than the wage................. is earned by a bricklayer. 8) He made certain remarks by........................... we could see that he was under a great strain,................................. he tried to conceal. 9) I am not all sure that you are the man.............................. I want to appoint. Fill in the correct pronoun: 1) I have not yet met the lady whose praises you are singing. 2) The player who won the match for us was the fly-half. 3) He who will not work, shall not eat. Feedback 4) The book that I wrote last year has not yet been published. 5) The plants which he bought at the auction all died. 6) The boy to whom I gave the message has disappeared. 7) The salary for what I work is less than the wage that is earned by a bricklayer. 8) He made certain remarks by which we could see that he was under a great strain, that he tried to conceal. 9) I am not all sure that you are the man whom I want to appoint. 1.4.4 Demonstrative pronouns “Demonstrative” means “pointing out”. The demonstrative pronouns are: this, that, these, those. Again as they are pronouns, they take the place of nouns or they can stand on their own: This is no fluke! That’s the ticket! Take these with you. Those were the day!  English Language Education 4 Demonstrative pronouns are not to be confused with demonstrative determiners which always have to be attached to nouns. That dog has fleas! Those elephants look bored. However, we accept when these determiners are also called possessive pronouns. 1.4.5 Interrogative pronouns Interrogative pronouns introduce either direct questions or indirect questions. Indirect questions are always noun clauses. The words: who, whom, whose, and which may be used as interrogative (or questioning) pronouns: DIRECT QUESTIONS INDIRECT QUESTIONS 1) Who is the lady in the car? 1) James wants to know who the lady in the car is. 2) Whom did you see at the 2) Mary asked whom he had concert? seen at the concert. 3) Whose book is that? 3) The teacher wants to know whose book that is. 4) For whom does she work? 4) He asked for whom she