Unit 2 - Language Learning Complements PDF
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This document discusses the philosophy and methods of language learning, focusing on real-world applications. It describes the concept of tasks in language learning, along with various stages in the task-based learning process. The document also touches on practical applications and roles of the teacher.
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Unit 2 ● Philosophy: Learning is seen as a result of engaging in meaningful and purposeful communication. ★ Definition of task: ○ Meaningisprimary(Nunan,1989;Skehan,1998b):therehastobeafocuson meaning over form since tasks ...
Unit 2 ● Philosophy: Learning is seen as a result of engaging in meaningful and purposeful communication. ★ Definition of task: ○ Meaningisprimary(Nunan,1989;Skehan,1998b):therehastobeafocuson meaning over form since tasks should be designed to use language pragmatically (Ellis, 2003) and to communicate content (Ellis, 2000). (semantic + pragmatic meaning, Ellis, 2009a). ○ The task needs to present learners with a “gap” to prompt them to communicate (e.g. need to convey certain information) so that they engage learnersinthekindofinformationprocessingleadingtosecondlanguage(L2) acquisition (Ellis, 2009a). ○ There has to be a connection to real-world activities (Skehan, 1998b) or, at least, tasks should elicit the type of language and communicative behaviour that stems from real-world tasks (Ellis, 2000, 2003). ○ Learners should resort to their own linguisticandnon-linguisticresourcesto fulfil the task (Ellis, 2009a). ○ A task may involve any language skill: receptive (reading, listening) or productive (speaking or writing) or even a combination of differenttypesof skills. (Ellis, 2003). ○ Theoutcomeofthetaskisnotmerelylanguageuse.Inotherwords,language use is not the pursued end, it is not the intended outcome of the task, but a means to achieve thatend,whichshouldultimatelybecommunicative(Ellis, 2003; Nunan, 1989). Stages: ● Task Planning (pretask): Learners are given a task to complete, often involving real-worldcommunication.Thetaskisintroducedandcontextualized,andtheroleof the teacher is essential as it motivates the learner. Input flooding and input enhancement are very important and useful in this stage. ● Task Performance (task cycle): Learners work collaboratively to complete the task, using language to achieve their goals. Students engagement (individually, pairs, groups)inthetask, -+/-planningtime.-Interaction(recasts)-Negotiationofoutput (setting goals and expectations). - Monitor! 10 Unit 2 ● LanguageFocus(post-task) :Afterthetask,there'sareflectiononlanguageuse,and language points are explicitly addressed based on what emerged during the task. Reporting stage (outcomes, findings, solutions) - Feedback & error correction - Language focus - Extension activities Example: ● Task:Planaweekendtripwithapartner,consideringtransportation,accommodations, and activities. ● Task Performance: Students discuss and plan the trip using the target language. ● LanguageFocus:Afterthetask,theteachermayaddressspecificlanguagepointsthat emerged during the discussion, such as vocabulary related to travel or appropriate verb tenses. Pros and Cons: ● Pros: Emphasizes real communication, encourages learner autonomy, and integrates language skills. ● Cons: May require careful planning, and some learners may feel more comfortable with traditional approaches. Roles of the teacher: ● Facilitator Creating opportunities for interaction ● Fostering learner autonomy ● Scaffolding ● Adapting tasks for diverse learner profiles To motivate learners: ● Task Relevance (real-life application): Ensure tasks align with learners' interests, needs, and real-life situations & show the practical use of language ● Clear Objectives: When learners understand the purpose and what they're working towards, it can boost motivation. ● Choice and Autonomy: Providing options or allowing them to choose topics can increase their motivation. ● Collaborative Learning: Group work or pair tasks can create a supportive environment ● Feedback: Offer constructive feedback and positive reinforcement. ● Variety and Creativity: Incorporate diverse tasks (also in terms of complexity). 11 Unit 2 CILL It stands for Content and Language Integrated Learning. Its aim is to teach the subjects present at the curriculum and, in addition, improve the skills of the foreign or second languagewithouttheneedofoverloadingthestudentswithmorelessons.Itopensdoorson languagesforabroaderrangeoflearners,nurturingself-confidenceinyounglearnersand those who have not responded well to formal language instruction in general education. It providesexposuretothelanguagewithoutrequiringextratimeinthecurriculum,whichcan be of particular interest in vocational settings. - AnexampleofthisapproachistheteachingofPhysicalEducationinEnglish;itisa good starting point due to the fact that vocabulary is limited and the teacher’s commandscaneasilybeunderstoodbypupils.Itisnotaneasytask,inthesensethat a teacher whose subject is not Foreign or Second Language Teaching has to be competent in this language as well as capable of adapting the level both to the objectives in the curriculum and to that of their pupils. Secondary Education Settings Secondary Education SettingshavealwaysprovidedaslightapproachtowhataCLILclass should be. In order to teach Administration, Robotics, Gardening, Electricity, Information Technology, Commerce, Ceramics, Cooking, Hairdressing, Engineering, etc., some of the tasks required for the good understanding of the terminology have to be taken out of real texts.Realiafrom different sources have paramountimportance. Initially, teachers speak slowly and use plenty of repetitions,demonstrations,visualaids and realia. Later, they speak at a more natural pace and encourage peer co-operative and independent learning. They work to create an atmosphere that fosters continuous language growth.However,languageisabsorbedmoresuccessfullywhenthefocusondirectlanguage teaching is reduced and content teaching is increased. By guiding students through experiments oractivitiesthatrelatedirectlytotheirlivesandbyfocusingonthelearningof content while providing language support, language learning is actually maximized. - The same happens with book reading: students concentrate in meaning, but form starts to enter the brain, and unconsciously linguistic patterns become familiar to them. - However,insomeautonomouscommunitiesthreelanguagesarestudiedandthisisa bitchaoticforparentswhenitcomestohomework.Techniquesforthemotivationof 12 Unit 2 students to get them engaged in Physical Education or Science in English, for example, should be part of the ongoing training. FLL & SLA Introduction Definition:ThesetwoacronymsstandforForeignLanguageLearningandSecondLanguage Acquisitionrespectively.Werefertothelearningofalanguagewiththeadjectiveof‘foreign’ when the learning process takes place in a country where his language is not official. - On the other hand, we use the expression ‘second language’ when the learning process takes place in a country where this language is official. However, when contrasted with foreign language, the term refers more narrowly to a language that plays a major role in a particular country or region though it may not be the first language of many people who use it. The concepts of Input, Intake and Output ● Input ○ When we talk about input we refer to the amount of language data that the studentisexposedto.AccordingtoZhang(2009),therearethreeviewsofthe concept of input: “Behaviourist, mentalist and interactionist view, each holding a different emphasis in explaining SLA. ○ Linguisticinformationormaterialthatindividualsreceiveandprocessasthey learn a language. Basically, everything in English is input ■ A behaviorist view treats language learning as environmentally determined,controlledfromoutsidebythestimulilearnedareexposed to and the reinforcement they receive. ● Example: In a behaviorist approach, alanguageteachermight use a system of rewards and reinforcements to encourage students to use correct grammar and vocabulary. Positive feedback or rewards for using the target language correctly would be a key element in this approach. 13 Unit 2 ■ Mentalist theories emphasize the importance of the learner’s ‘black box’. They maintain that learners’ brains are especially equipped to learn language and all that is needed is minimal exposuretoinputin order to trigger acquisition (Ellis, 1997) ● Example: From a mentalist perspective, a language learner's cognitive processes are crucial. Minimal exposure to a new language, like reading a short story or listening to a brief conversation,isbelievedtotriggerthelearner'sinnateabilityto acquire language. The emphasis is on the learner's internal cognitive mechanisms. ■ Interaction theories acknowledge the importance of both input and internallanguageprocessing,emphasizingthejointcontributionofthe linguisticenvironmentandthelearners’innermechanismininteraction activities”. ● Example: In an interactionist approach, language learning occursthroughmeaningfulinteractions.Thiscouldinvolvepair or group activities where students engage in conversations, exchanging ideas and information. The linguisticenvironment (input) combines with the learner's internal processing during interactive language activities. ○ COMPREHENSIBLEINPUT:Languageinputthatisdeliveredinaway that learners can understand, despite encountering some elements that might be slightly beyond their current level of linguistic competence. ■ IfyougaveaneconomicsreadingtoESOstudentsthatwouldbeinput but not comprehensible input for them. ● Intake ○ Incontrasttoinput,which,aswesawabove,istheamountofdatawhichthe studentisexposedto,theconceptofintakereferstotheinputwhichhasbeen processed, this is, learned by the student. Corder (1967) was the one who coined thisterm:“Thesimplefactofpresentingacertainlinguisticformtoa learnerintheclassroomdoesnotnecessarilyqualifyitforthestatusofinput, for the reason that inputis‘whatgoesin’,notwhatisavailableforgoingin, and we may reasonablysupposethatitisthelearnerwhocontrolsthisinput, 14 Unit 2 or more properly his intake”. Thus, he made the distinction between what couldhaveenteredthelearner’sbrain(input)andwhatactuallyhasenteredit (intake). ■ In simple terms, it's the difference between what could have entered the learner's brain (input) and what actually did enter it (intake). ■ The portion of language exposure that learners actively process and internalize, potentially leading to learning or language acquisition. ○ Uptake: learner'sactiveincorporationoruseofthelanguageinputtheyhave internalized or understood ● Output ○ Whenweusethetermoutputwerefertotheproductionthatstudentsmakeof their second language after the process of learning. It isthefinalstepofthe processbeginningwithaninputthatturnsintoanintakeandfinallyresultsin anoutput.Theoutputismeasuredintermsoffluencyandaccuracy.Errorsin output are treated in different ways with the aim of making them disappear. ○ Production of language by learners in the target language. Error correction: Oral error correction: ● Indirect: You don’t provide explicitly the correct form of your student's errors. ○ Recasts ○ Repetition ○ Elicitation ○ Clarification requests ■ Pros: They learn how to correct themselves ■ Cons:Errorscangounnoticed,theymaynotbeabletoguesstheyare making a mistake. ■ Bitchener and Ferris (2012) claimed that it was high proficiency learners who were able to take greater advantage of oral CF than low-proficiency learners. 15 Unit 2 ■ To solve the cons, it is useful to make notes and in a subsequent session you can give them written metalinguistic explanations with their mistakes, that way you don’t interrupt the communication flow and it’s not too invasive. ● Direct correction: You give them explicitly the correction ■ Pros: Not very invasive, Window of opportunity - immediate. The closer in time you provide the correction they will internalize the content ■ Cons: You can stop the communication flow, it can impact their self-esteem Written corrective feedback: This is very visual. It becomes an advantage over OCF as errors don’t go unnoticed. ● Direct feedback ○ Inthiscasereduceslearners´confusionandanxietywheninterpretingindirect feedback. ○ Provides enough information to correct the errors and to confirm/refute hypotheses possibly tested. ○ More Immediate ● Reformulations:(DF) ○ Identical text written by the student with the error corrected. ○ An advantage would be that is that students are contextualized ○ A disadvantage is they may not understand the reason behindtheirmistakes and it is time consuming ● Metalinguistic explanations (DF) ○ “Explains and/or exemplifies accurate target-like uses of linguistic forms or structures” (Bitchener, 2012: 355) Example Direct Feedback and metalinguistic explanation: 16 Unit 2 - Pros:It is immediate and explicit - Cons: Very little processing and/or engagement/processing of Written Correction Feedback Indirect feedback: Deeperlinguisticreflectionandproblem-solving(Bitchener,2012;Bitchener&Ferris,2012). Greater cognitive engagement leading to L2 learning. Indirect formsaremoreadequatefor moreadvancedL2learners(Bitchener,2012;Bitchener&Ferris,2012;Bitchener&Storch, 2016). ● “indicateswhereanerrorhasoccurred(…)markingitatitslocationinatext,withor without a verbal rule reminder or an error code, and asking students to make corrections themselves” (Ferris, 2002: 63) ○ Circling themistakesorunderlining,highlightingaswell(youcanalsousea correctioncodetoleadtheirattentiontocertainmistakes:wrongword,wrong tense,spelling) ○ Giving them models after the task they have to do ■ The errors of the students don’t appear in the model ● A pro is that there is a deeper process of engagement ● A con is that teachers are unable to provide answers – lack of engagement ● YoucouldgivestudentsaWFCtablewheretheyneedtofillinthetablewiththetype oferrorthey’vemade,andthecorrectionsgiven.Thiswayyoucanengagestudentsin feedback analysis. 17
