Crime Risk Perspectives PDF

# 2011 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria CMY2601/1/2012±2015 98765884  (iii) _ _ __ __ _ __ __ _...

# 2011 University of South Africa All rights reserved Printed and published by the University of South Africa Muckleneuk, Pretoria CMY2601/1/2012±2015 98765884  (iii) _ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ Contents Page ORIENTATION (xiv) THEME 1 UNIVERSAL FACTORS THAT INCREASE THE RISK OF CRIME AND VICTIMISATION 1 1.1 DEMOGRAPHY AND URBANISATION 2 1.1.1 Introduction 3 1.1.2 Key concepts 4 1.1.2.1 Demography 4 1.1.2.2 Urbanisation and urban growth 5 1.1.3 Population growth 6 1.1.4 Features of urban life that contribute to criminality 6 1.1.5 South African cities 8 1.1.6 Can high crime rates in urban places be reduced? 9 1.1.7 Conclusion 10 1.1.8 Self-assessment questions 11 1.1.9 Self-assessment answers 12 1.1.10 Feedback on activities 12 1.2 ECONOMIC FACTORS ± ECONOMIC SYSTEMS AND VULNERABILITY TO CRIME 13 1.2.1 Introduction 14 1.2.2 Capitalism-socialism continuum 14 1.2.2.1 Adam Smith (1723±1790): founder of capitalism 15 1.2.2.2 Karl Marx (1818±1883): father of socialism 15 1.2.2.3 John Maynard Keynes (1883±1946): creator of the concept of the mixed economy 16 1.2.3 Vulnerability to crime and economic factors 17 1.2.4 Economic inequalities and crime 17 1.2.5 Conclusion 19 1.2.6 Self-assessment questions 19 1.2.7 Self-assessment answers 20 1.2.8 Feedback on activities 20 (iv) Contents 1.3 UNEMPLOYMENT 21 1.3.1 Introduction 22 1.3.2 Definition of unemployment 23 1.3.2.1 Voluntary unemployment 24 1.3.2.2 Enforced or involuntary unemployment 24 1.3.3 Types of unemployment 24 1.3.4 Levels of unemployment 25 1.3.5 Trade unions 25 1.3.6 Causes of unemployment 26 1.3.6.1 Structural factors 26 1.3.6.2 Natural causes 26 1.3.6.3 Balance of payments 26 1.3.6.4 Lack of investment in a country 26 1.3.6.5 Falling exports 27 1.3.6.6 Apartheid policy 27 1.3.6.7 Inflation 27 1.3.6.8 Automation 27 1.3.6.9 Rationalisation 27 1.3.6.10 Affirmative action 28 1.3.6.11 Privatisation 28 1.3.6.12 Crime as a factor 28 1.3.6.13 Skills shortages 28 1.3.6.14 The education system 29 1.3.7 Young people and unemployment 33 1.3.8 Unemployment and crime 33 1.3.9 Conclusion 31 1.3.10 Self-assessment questions 31 1.3.11 Self-assessment answers 34 1.3.12 Feedback on activities 34 1.4 POVERTY 35 1.4.1 Introduction 36 1.4.2 Definition of poverty 37 1.4.2.1 Absolute (extreme) poverty 38 1.4.2.2 Relative poverty 38  Contents (v) 1.4.2.3 Estimating poverty in South Africa 38 1.4.3 Causes of poverty and circumstances which make it worse 39 1.4.3.1 The economy 40 1.4.3.2 Employment in the labour market 40 1.4.3.3 Small and micro-enterprises in the informal sector 43 1.4.3.4 Globalisation and competition 44 1.4.3.5 Inflation 45 1.4.3.6 Non-income factors 45 1.4.3.7 Population growth, density and distribution 46 1.4.3.8 Regulation of the environment 47 1.4.3.9 Crime, corruption and inefficiency 48 1.4.3.10 Violence and physical safety 48 1.4.3.11 Powerlessness and insecurity 48 1.4.3.12 Shocks and disruptions 49 1.4.4 Consequences of poverty 49 1.4.5 Poverty, crime and the economic environment 50 1.4.6 Conclusion 52 1.4.7 Self-assessment questions 52 1.4.8 Self-assessment answers 53 1.4.9 Feedback on activities 53 1.5 CULTURAL AND ETHNIC DIVERSITY AND CRIME 54 1.5.1 Introduction 54 1.5.2 Ethnicity 55 1.5.3 Ethnocentrism 56 1.5.4 Ethnic diversity and crime 57 1.5.5 Ethnic cleansing 57 1.5.5.1 Origin and definition of ethnic cleansing 58 1.5.5.2 Objectives of ethnic cleansing 58 1.5.5.3 Ethnic cleansing in various countries 58 1.5.6 Eurocentrism 63 1.5.7 Conclusion 63 1.5.8 Self-assessment questions 63 1.5.9 Self-assessment answers 64 1.5.10 Feedback on activities 64 (vi) Contents 1.6 CRIME IN MULTICULTURAL COMMUNITIES 66 1.6.1 Introduction 66 1.6.2 Crime in homogeneous communities 67 1.6.3 Crime in heterogeneous communities 68 1.6.4 Conclusion 69 1.6.5 Self-assessment questions 69 1.6.6 Self-assessment answers 70 1.6.7 Feedback on activities 70 1.7 SOME CULTURAL FEATURES AFFECTING CRIME: PERSONAL AND IMPERSONAL SUPERNATURALISM 71 1.7.1 Introduction 72 1.7.2 Black magic, malevolent magic or witchcraft 72 1.7.3 Muti murders in South Africa 72 1.7.4 Conclusion 76 1.7.5 Self-assessment questions 76 1.7.6 Self-assessment answers 77 1.7.7 Feedback on activities 77 1.8 SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE FAMILY 78 1.8.1 Introduction 79 1.8.2 Definition of concepts 79 1.8.2.1 Definition of family 80 1.8.2.2 Definition of family system 80 1.8.2.3 Definition of family structure 81 1.8.3 High-risk disorganised family system 81 1.8.4 Closed family system 83 1.8.5 Disengaged family system 84 1.8.6 Families with clear boundaries 86 1.8.7 Enmeshed family system 86 1.8.8 Conclusion 88 1.8.9 Self-assessment questions 88 1.8.10 Self-assessment answers 89 1.8.11 Feedback on activities 89 1.9 FAMILY STRUCTURES 90 1.9.1 Introduction 90  Contents (vii) 1.9.2 Structural changes 91 1.9.3 Single-parent families 92 1.9.4 Broken families 95 1.9.5 Families with same-sex parents 96 1.9.6 Child-headed households 97 1.9.7 Conclusion 99 1.9.8 Self-assessment questions 99 1.9.9 Self-assessment answers 100 1.9.10 Feedback on activities 100 1.10 STYLES OF PARENTING AND DISCIPLINE 101 1.10.1 Introduction 102 1.10.2 Factors contributing to inadequate parenting 102 1.10.2.1 Youthful age of the parent 102 1.10.2.2 Inadequate knowledge and insight in respect of the natural phases of development of infants and children 103 1.10.2.3 Criminal or other deviant behaviour of the parent 103 1.10.2.4 Lack of problem-solving skills 104 1.10.2.5 Incorrect parenting styles 105 1.10.3 Inadequate disciplinary methods as a factor in delinquent behaviour 107 1.10.3.1 Excessive discipline 107 1.10.3.2 Inconsistent discipline 110 1.10.4 Conclusion 111 1.10.5 Self-assessment questions 111 1.10.6 Self-assessment answers 112 1.10.7 Feedback on activities 113 1.11 FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS, MARITAL CONFLICT AND CHILD ABUSE 114 1.11.1 Introduction 115 1.11.2 Family relationships 115 1.11.3 Marital conflict 117 1.11.4 Child abuse and neglect 118 1.11.4.1 Forms of child abuse 118 1.11.4.2 Causes of child abuse 118 1.11.4.3 Consequences of child abuse 120 (viii) Contents 1.11.4.4 The effect of abuse according to gender 121 1.11.4.5 Age at onset of abuse 122 1.11.4.6 Criminal behaviour as a result of abuse 123 1.11.5 Conclusion 124 1.11.6 Self-assessment questions 124 1.11.7 Self-assessment answers 125 1.11.8 Feedback on activities 125 1.12 GENDER AND CRIME 126 1.12.1 Introduction 127 1.12.2 Key concept 127 1.12.3 Crime trends in terms of gender 128 1.12.4 Why do men commit more crime than women? 128 1.12.5 Increase in number of females imprisoned, and female prisoner characteristics 130 1.12.6 Traditional theories/views of gender and crime 132 1.12.6.1 Biological theories 133 1.12.6.2 Sociological theories 134 1.12.6.3 Psychological theories 135 1.12.6.4 Emancipation of women 136 1.12.7 Conclusion 137 1.12.8 Self-assessment questions 137 1.12.9 Self-assessment answers 138 1.12.10 Feedback on activities 138 1.13 FEMINIST VIEWS OF CRIME 139 1.13.1 Introduction 140 1.13.2 Premises of the feminist school of thought 140 1.13.3 Feminist crime perspectives 141 1.13.3.1 Liberal feminism 142 1.13.3.2 Phenomenological feminism 142 1.13.3.3 Marxist feminism 143 1.13.3.4 Socialist feminism 143 1.13.3.5 Radical feminism 144 1.13.3.6 Contemporary feminist criminology 144 1.13.3.7 Postmodern and other types of feminism 145  Contents (ix) 1.13.4 Evaluation of feminist crime perspectives 145 1.13.4.1 The contribution of feminism to criminology 145 1.13.4.2 Criticism of feminist crime perspectives 146 1.13.5 Conclusion 146 1.13.6 Self-assessment questions 147 1.13.7 Self-assessment answers 148 1.14 POSTMODERN EXPLANATIONS FOR GENDER AND CRIME 149 1.14.1 Introduction 150 1.14.2 Agnew 's general strain theory 150 1.14.3 Gottfredson and Hirschi's general crime theory 152 1.14.4 Hagan's power control theory 153 1.14.5 Moffit's developmental theory 154 1.14.6 Conclusion 155 1.14.7 Self-assessment questions 156 1.14.8 Self-assessment answers 157 1.14.9 Feedback on activity 157 THEME 2 IMPLICATIONS OF ILLEGAL SUBSTANCE ABUSE 159 2.1 GLOBAL EXTENT OF DRUG USE AND ABUSE 161 2.1.1 Introduction 162 2.1.2 Drug use as a universal phenomenon 163 2.1.3 Definition of key concepts 164 2.1.3.1 Drugs or psychoactive substances 164 2.1.3.2 Licit/illicit drugs 164 2.1.4 The drug problem: a worldwide epidemic 164 2.1.5 Drug trends worldwide 166 2.1.6 The drug situation in South Africa 167 2.1.6.1 South African drug policy 170 2.1.6.2 The combating of illicit drug trafficking in South Africa 171 2.1.7 Conclusion 173 2.1.8 Self-assessment questions 173 2.1.9 Self-assessment answers 174 2.1.10 Feedback on activities 174 (x) Contents 2.2 PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES AND THE DANGERS ASSO- CIATED WITH DRUG USE ON A PHYSICAL AND SOCIAL LEVEL 176 2.2.1 Introduction 177 2.2.2 Definition of key concepts 178 2.2.2.1 The meaning of drug addiction 178 2.2.2.2 Drugs or psychoactive substances 179 2.2.2.3 Drug offenders and drug-using offenders 179 2.2.3 Classification of substances and their effects 180 2.2.3.1 Central nervous system depressants (CNSDs) 181 2.2.3.2 Central nervous system stimulants (CNSSs) 182 2.2.3.3 Central nervous system hallucinogens (CNSHs) 182 2.2.4 Path of addiction 183 2.2.5 Individual drugs and the dangers associated with these substances 184 2.2.5.1 Crack 184 2.2.5.2 Rohypnol (flunitrazepam) 185 2.2.5.3 Gamma hydroxybutyrate (GHB) 186 2.2.5.4 Heroin 186 2.2.5.5 Inhalants 187 2.2.5.6 Ketamine hydrochloride 188 2.2.5.7 Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) 189 2.2.5.8 Marijuana (dagga, cannabis) 191 2.2.5.9 Ecstasy MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine) 192 2.2.5.10 Methamphetamine 193 2.2.6 Drugs and alcohol abuse among the South African youth 194 2.2.7 Conclusion 195 2.2.8 Self-assessment questions 195 2.2.9 Self-assessment answers 197 2.2.10 Feedback on activities 197 2.3 THE LINK BETWEEN DRUGS AND CRIME 200 2.3.1 Introduction 201 2.3.2 Research on the drug-crime link 201 2.3.2.1 A drug-using lifestyle 202 2.3.2.2 Two complex behaviours 202 2.3.2.3 Nexus between drugs and crime 203  Contents (xi) 2.3.2.4 Noncausal connections 203 2.3.3 The drug and crime connection 204 2.3.3.1 Systemic crime 205 2.3.3.2 Psychopharmacological crime 206 2.3.3.3 Economic compulsive crime 206 2.3.4 The direct social consequences of drug use and abuse 207 2.3.5 The cost of drugs to society 207 2.3.5.1 The adverse social consequences of drug abuse 207 2.3.5.2 Child abuse 208 2.3.5.3 Role of particular drugs in crime 209 2.3.6 Conclusion 210 2.3.7 Self-assessment questions 210 2.3.8 Self-assessment answers 212 2.3.9 Feedback on activities 212 2.4 THE IMPLICATIONS OF DRUGS FOR THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 213 2.4.1 Introduction 213 2.4.2 Impact of drug-related crime on the criminal justice system 214 2.4.3 Conclusion 221 2.4.4 Self-assessment questions 222 2.4.5 Self-assessment answers 222 2.5 MODERN PREVENTION STRATEGIES IN THE FIGHT AGAINST DRUG ABUSE 223 2.5.1 Introduction 224 2.5.2 The role of domains 224 2.5.3 Modern approaches to prevention 224 2.5.3.1 Delaying the onset of substance abuse in a community 226 2.5.3.2 Prevention of progression of substance abuse 226 2.5.3.3 Targeting risk groups 226 2.5.3.4 Information dissemination 226 2.5.3.5 Stevens, Trace and Bewley-Taylor's (2005) model for reducing drug-related crime 227 2.5.4 Conclusion 227 2.5.5 Self-assessment questions 228 2.5.6 Self-assessment answers 229 (xii) Contents THEME 3 COMMUNITY SAFEGUARDING AND SECURITY 231 3.1 IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF CRIME PREVENTION 232 3.1.1 Introduction 233 3.1.2 Cost of crime to the community 233 3.1.3 The concept of crime prevention and control, and levels of crime prevention 235 3.1.3.1 The concept of crime prevention and control 235 3.1.3.2 Levels of crime prevention 236 3.1.4 Important elements of successful crime prevention 238 3.1.4.1 Multidimensional crime prevention approach 238 3.1.4.2 The importance of a theoretical frame of reference 238 3.1.4.3 Unique nature of crime patterns 239 3.1.4.4 Need for government and community involvement 240 3.1.4.5 Proper planning and evaluation of crime prevention programmes 241 3.1.5 Conclusion 242 3.1.6 Self-assessment questions 243 3.1.7 Self-assessment answers 244 3.1.8 Feedback on activities 244 3.2 PREVENTION AIMED AT THE SOCIAL AND PHYSICAL HUMAN ENVIRONMENT 245 3.2.1 The social crime prevention model 247 3.2.1.1 Challenges facing the implementation of social crime prevention measures 249 3.2.1.2 Different approaches to and features of social crime prevention 250 3.2.1.3 Examples of social crime prevention programmes 250 3.2.1.4 Problems relating to social crime prevention programmes 251 3.2.1.5 Abstract of social crime prevention 253 3.2.2 Reducing the opportunities for crime (the physical milieu prevention model) 253 3.2.2.1 Ten principles of the crime opportunity theory 254 3.2.2.2 Approaches to and features of the physical milieu prevention model 255 3.2.2.3 Examples of preventing opportunities to commit a crime 256 3.2.2.4 Problems in implementing the physical milieu prevention model 257 3.2.2.5 Abstract of the physical milieu prevention model 258 3.2.3 The community-based crime prevention model 258  Contents (xiii) 3.2.3.1 Approaches to and features of the crime prevention model 258 3.2.3.2 Examples of community-based crime prevention programmes 259 3.2.3.3 Problems and challenges in implementing community-based crime prevention programmes 260 3.2.3.4 Abstract of the community-based crime prevention programme 261 3.2.4 Self-assessment questions 261 3.2.5 Self-assessment answers 263 3.2.6 Feedback on activities 264 3.3 PREVENTION AIMED AT INDIVIDUAL PEOPLE 265 3.3.1 The biophysical prevention model 266 3.3.1.1 Points of departure and features 266 3.3.1.2 Problems with the biophysical prevention model 266 3.3.2 The psychological prevention model 267 3.3.2.1 Points of departure and features 267 3.3.2.2 Treatment techniques 267 3.3.2.3 Problems with the psychological prevention model 267 3.3.3 Conclusion 268 3.3.4 Self-assessment questions 269 3.3.5 Self-assessment answers 269 3.4 INTEGRATED CRIME PREVENTION MODELS 270 3.4.1 Introduction 271 3.4.1.1 The traditional or conservative model of crime prevention 272 3.4.1.2 The mainstream or liberal model of crime prevention 272 3.4.1.3 The radical or conflict model of crime prevention 273 3.4.2 Theory, politics and practice 274 3.4.3 The role of the South African Police Service and the municipal police in building crime-free communities 275 3.4.4 Social crime prevention in South Africa's major cities 276 3.4.5 Khulisa Crime Prevention Initiative 280 3.4.6 Self-assessment questions 281 3.4.7 Self-assessment answers 283 3.4.8 Feedback on activities 283 BIBLIOGRAPHY 284 (xiv) _ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ _ __ __ Orientation Please note: Start by reading through Tutorial Letter 101 for this course before you study the themes for module CMY2601. Welcome to the module Crime Risk Perspectives. This study guide focuses on some relevant local and national concerns. We trust you will find your studies interesting and informative, and the study material useful and applicable ± not only to you as a professional, but also as a citizen of a democratic society. Please do not hesitate to contact your module coordinator if you have any problems or questions relating to your studies. We adopted two approaches in compiling this study guide:. We considered the important social relevance of this subject, and the community requiring services. The information we have made available should give you a better understanding of, and more insight into, society 's reaction to crime and the adjudication of crime.. We provided you with guidelines for solving problems within the criminal justice environment. We hope you will master the information in this study guide in such a way that you will be able to apply it in your everyday life. This study guide has been developed in accordance with the principles of curriculum design as outlined in the 1996 curriculum framework (CDWG 1996:11±16). This framework, which emphasises outcomes-based learning, promotes:. learner-centredness. lifelong learning. critical creative thought. nation-building and nondiscrimination. credibility of the higher education system. quality assurance The purpose of this module is to enable you, the learner, to gain more knowledge about, and a better understanding of, the phenomenon being studied; to form attitudes and values; and to acquire general and specific skills that will help you expand your understanding of criminology. We encourage you to think critically. We will assist you to:. expand your knowledge and areas of conceptual understanding. form attitudes and shape your values. acquire skills In expanding your knowledge and areas of conceptual understanding , we aim to familiarise you with:  Orientation (xv). factors which increase the risk of crime. explanations of crime. theoretical approaches to crime prevention In the process we want to help you to think holistically about such matters as crime causation by emphasising the fact that criminal behaviour is seldom caused by a single factor: crime is usually caused by a variety of conducive and decisive factors. We wish to stimulate the forming of attitudes and shaping of values by fostering your active interest in the topics of study as reflected in reportage in the news media, including newspapers, periodicals, radio, television, and the internet. We wish to raise your awareness of crime as a phenomenon and help you develop a responsible attitude towards its prevention by using your criminological knowledge and related skills in everyday life. We encourage you to become actively involved in and committed to the search for solutions to local, regional and national crime and related problems. By proceeding from the premise that criminal behaviour is determined by identifiable causes, we try to inculcate the principle of cause and effect. We try to develop an understanding of humaneness by encouraging you to take an interest in the country 's crime problems and being sympathetic toward crime victims and their situations. Respect for basic human rights is also strongly emphasised. Drawing attention to crime as a prejudicial (injurious) phenomenon naturally focuses on a comprehensive system that includes or encompasses law- abiding values such as honesty, orderliness, a sense of duty, healthy interpersonal relations, good citizenship and freedom. Skills acquisition receives particular emphasis in this course. The development of reading and learning skills forms the groundwork for mastering the learning content. As learners you will be introduced to concepts relating to the subject so that you can develop the communicative thinking and social skills necessary to explore and discuss course-related criminological topics from local to international level. Our aim is to develop your ability to be able to argue and, in so doing, expand your field of expertise by drawing simple conclusions and forming new opinions. We want to teach you to observe (by reading your study guide and being sensitive to crime- related matters as reported in the media and manifested in your daily environment), and to collect information, summarise it and arrange it into a meaningful coherent whole (by completing assignments and answering examination questions). Outcomes-based outputs The above outline relates to certain critical (generally formative) and specific (developmental) outcomes or intended results of learning (with respect to knowledge and insight, attitudes and values, and skills). Critical learning outcomes This module aims to achieve specific critical learning outcomes, and a study of this module should enable you to acquire the following: (xvi) Orientation. Criminological literacy. With knowledge of the concepts of the subject and a scientific aptitude for the crime problem, the offender and the victim's situation, you will be able to identify course-related problems and even develop a critical Global and contextual perspectives viewpoint about them by means of creative thought... Awareness of global views on crime explanation and prevention is conducive to the establishment of an overall perspective on the subject content. Extensive reference to the concepts comprising this module familiarises you with a more detailed vision of or a A sense of responsibility contextualised perspective on criminological reality... Open distance learning focuses on self-study; it thus requires a high level of commitment, perseverance and a sense of duty. The self- assessment component at the end of each study unit provides you with the Communication skills opportunity to organise and manage your own learning activities... The topical nature of the course content (factors that contribute to the high levels of crime, the explanation of criminal behaviour, events in the police service, correctional institutions and courts, and crime prevention endeavours) will hopefully stimulate your interest in the subject content. This will help you to visualise course-related realities and expand your areas of experience so that you can draw elementary conclusions and form new opinions. As part of the module, you will be required to communicate effectively in social discourse on matters such as punishment of offenders, the rights of criminals and victims in the criminal justice system, crime causation factors and crime prevention. Good writing skills will also help you to express yourself Reading and research skills effectively... You will be required to observe accurately (information contained in the study guide and tutorial letters, as well as national, international and local events) and collect, analyse, order and critically assess information. This will help you to explore criminological topics scientifically and Collaboration in a group and community context. formulate questions when necessary.. Provided you know and understand basic concepts to which you are exposed in the study material, develop the ability to think and reason critically, and identify the causes of crime and make assumptions, you will be able to apply the subject matter contained in the study material in a group and a community context, for example by participating in community protection forums (CPF) and/or crime prevention Personal skills. programmes.. You will be given the opportunity to develop (to a lesser or greater extent) the following skills: Ð Learning skills. You will acquire these skills by, for example, ignoring irrelevant information, handling controversial information, drawing conclusions and Schematic skills considering different viewpoints. Ð. These skills come into play when important facts have to be separated or correct options have to be selected (eg multiple-choice Skills in synthesis questions (MCQs) in assignments and examinations). Ð. You will acquire these skills when you become conversant with the procedure of selecting and collecting information from the study guide, summarising it and arranging it to form a meaningful and coherent whole (eg when you prepare to answer MCQs in the self-assessment exercises).  Orientation (xvii) Ð Acquisition of positive values. If you focus on basic human rights (the rights of both the offender and the victim) and on concepts such as natural justice, you will develop a comprehensive system of positive law-abiding values such as honesty, good citizenship, sound human relations and freedom. Specific learning outcomes A study of module CMY2601 is aimed at achieving the following specific learning outcomes:. gain knowledge, problem-solving skills and competencies about and relating to crime risk perspectives. collect, analyse, organise and evaluate information on the subject matter of crime risk perspectives. communicate effectively using language skills in the modes or oral and/or written persuasion in sustained discourse. cooperate in group and community contexts. demonstate an understanding of the world as a set of related systems by recognising that problem-solving contexts do not exist in isolation. participate in a responsible way in criminological developments that affect local, national, regional and global communities. be sensitive to criminological issues across a range of social contexts Overview of the course We cover three themes in this module. Note that the themes are related and should not be studied separately from one another. Here is a brief overview of the course contents. Theme 1 (study units 1.1 to 1.14) focuses on the universal factors that increase the risk of crime and victimisation. You will be introduced to various related aspects which include the social setting of an urban area and how disorganisation can contribute to crime; unemployment and poverty as economic problems and the role of these factors in crime; the family as one of the most important societal systems, including a specific focus on problems within the family context, such as child abuse; and the role of gender in crime as investigated from a postmodern Theme 2 viewpoint. (study units 2.1 to 2.5) deals with the implications of illegal substance abuse. In this theme the implications of illegal substance abuse are addressed by focusing on the global and local extent of drug use and abuse; the different types of psychoactive substances and their physical effects; and the social consequences of drug abuse and the implications of drugs for the criminal justice system. We also focus on the social environment as a domain for crime Theme 3 prevention. (study units 3.1 to 3.4) focuses on community safeguarding and security, and the principles of crime prevention and control. We consider important aspects of crime prevention and focus on prevention aimed at the social and physical environments of people as well as individual prevention. We also (xviii) Orientation examine and assess integrated crime prevention models with specific reference to domestic violence. The nature of the study package The study package consists of this study guide and various tutorial letters. The tutorial letters concentrate on administrative matters and assignments. The study material in the study guide is divided into three themes as already explained. Each theme consists of a number of study units which follow the general introduction to the theme. The introduction gives an indication of what you will learn. You will notice that each study unit starts with specific learning outcomes. These learning outcomes describe what you need to be able to do with the content. We have included some self-assessment questions at the end of each study unit as well as Tutorial Letter 101 certain activities at strategic points within the text. Please make sure you have read through before attempting to study the themes in this module.  1 THEME 1 Universal factors that increase the risk of crime and victimisation 2 STUDY UNIT 1.1 Demography and urbanisation Dr M Barkhuizen 1.1.1 Introduction 1.1.2 Key concepts 1.1.2.1 Demography 1.1.2.2 Urbanisation and urban growth 1.1.3 Population growth 1.1.4 Features of urban life that contribute to criminality 1.1.5 South African cities 1.1.6 Can high crime rates in urban places be reduced? 1.1.7 Conclusion 1.1.8 Self-assessment questions 1.1.9 Self-assessment answers 1.1.10 Feedback on activities LEARNING OUTCOMES After completing this study unit, you should be able to. explain urbanisation and urban growth as demographic terms. distinguish between fertility, mortality and migration. identify those aspects of urban life which contribute to criminality. discuss the problem of foreign-born residents in South African cities. indicate proposals to reduce high crime rates in cities Assessment criteria After completing this study unit, you should be able to answer diverse multiple-  Demography and urbanisation 3 choice questions to demonstrate your understanding and knowledge of, and insight into, the study material. GLOSSARY OF TERMS Demography..................................................................................................... Fertility.............................................................................................................. Mortality............................................................................................................ Migration........................................................................................................... Urbanisation....................................................................................................... Urban growth................................................................................................... Once you have read through study unit 1, return to this glossary box and summarise the above terms. 1.1.1 Introduction Urbanisation is a global phenomenon. During the 19th and early 20th centuries large- scale urbanisation took place, especially in European and North American cities. Since World War II, however, significant urban growth has also taken place in the developing countries on the continents of Africa, Asia and South America. This dramatic growth may be attributed to natural population growth (greater number of births than deaths) and migration (especially the movement of people from rural to urban areas). Most developed countries are considered to be urbanised already, whereas developing countries are experiencing a process of rapid urbanisation. South Africa, a semi-developed country, is also experiencing a growing influx of people to towns and cities, the majority of whom are black people. Rapid urbanisation has placed increasing pressure on urban social resources. Among the black population, a new social distinction has evolved which is based on differences in employment opportunities as well as in income and access to an urban residential setup. These differences have resulted in conflict over land areas, housing, water and sanitation services. Such conflict associated with rapid urbanisation is of interest to criminologists, because it creates the tension that can lead to crime. The growth in the world's population is a matter that concerns us all and Cohen (2006) provides us with interesting facts on this issue. The world population has grown from around 1.6 billion people in 1900 to around 6.1 billion today, with each additional billion being added more rapidly than the last. The vast majority of growth has taken place in the developing world. In 1950, just over half of the population of the developed world and just one-third of the population of the entire world lived in urban areas. Continued urbanisation over the last 50 years has resulted in a situation whereby close to a half of the world's population now live in urban areas. At this rate of growth, the world's urban population can be expected to double in 38 years. By 4 STUDY UNIT 1.1 2030, demographers predict that around 61% of the world's population will be living in urban areas. )snoillim( noitalupoP Urban Rural 06 05 07 08 00 09 01 02 03 91 91 91 91 02 91 02 02 02 Figure 1: Estimated projected urban and rural populations of the world (1950:20±30) Source: United Nations 2002 1.1.2 Key concepts 1.1.2.1 Demography Demography is the scientific study of populations and, more specifically, the study of births, deaths, disease, and so forth, which illustrates conditions of life in communities (Concise Oxford Dictionary 1984:254). The size, composition and distribution of the population have an important impact on social issues. The influx of people into cities, for example, creates pressing housing problems. In the study of population issues, it is clear that various elements relating to the population, such as fertility (birth rate), mortality (the incidence of deaths) and migration (movement from one area to another), are largely influenced by a society 's norms, values and social patterns.. Fertility (birth rate) is influenced by the age at which people become sexually active and their use of contraceptives which may, in turn, reflect both the social and the religious values that guide a particular culture. The birth rate of South African women is estimated at 2.7 children per woman (Statistics South Africa Mortality 2006).. (the incidence of deaths) is influenced by nutritional standards, opportunity for immunisation, sanitation facilities, health care and health education. For South Africans, life expectancy at birth is estimated at 49.0 years Migration for males and 52.5 years for females (Statistics South Africa 2006).. (movement from one area to another) from one country or area to another is influenced by considerations such as people's evaluation of employ- ment opportunities as well as tolerance in respect of sensitive issues such as race and religion. For South Africa it is estimated that the large documented outmigration of whites will decline substantially over time and that the immigration of Africans will continue (Statistics South Africa 2006).  Demography and urbanisation 5 1.1.2.2 Urbanisation and urban growth When discussing the topic of urbanisation, phenomena such as urbanisation and urban growth are often dealt with together. In demographic terms, urbanisation refers to. the places where people live which have been defined as urban. the physical influx of people across boundaries toward areas which have been defined as urban. the reclassification of certain areas as urban areas Urban growth is a wider concept than urbanisation, and refers to the increase in the population of urban areas. This increase may be attributed to migration from rural areas, relocation of urban boundaries, the natural increase in the established urban population and the relocation of people from other urban areas. The level and rate of urbanisation of any population is closely related to the level of economic development and wealth. It has been shown that developing countries with the lowest per capita income display a low level of urbanisation but a high rate of urban population growth; developed countries, on the other hand, have a high level of urbanisation but a low level of urban population growth. The increasing rate of urbanisation is a global phenomenon. The principal reasons for rising levels of urbanisation are rural-urban migration, the geographic expansion of urban areas, and the transformation and reclassification of rural areas into urban settlements (Cohen 2006). In South Africa, the most noticeable urbanisation has taken place in and around the big cities such as Johannesburg, Durban, Cape Town, Pretoria/Tshwane and Port Elizabeth. There are enormous differences in the patterns of urbanisation between regions and even greater variation in the level and speed with which individual countries, or indeed individual cities within regions, are growing. Asia and Africa, both still heavily dependent on agriculture, are predominantly rural in character although both had around 37% of their populations living in urban areas in 2000. Since they are less urbanised, these two regions are expected to experience relatively faster rates of urbanisation over the next 30 years. Levels of urbanisation are still below 20% in a number of the poorest countries in the region including Burundi, Ethiopia, Malawi, Burkina Faso and Uganda (Cohen 2006). African cities are growing, often in spite of poor macroeconomic performance and without significant direct foreign investment, making it almost impossible for urban authorities to provide adequate basic infrastructure or essential services. Nevertheless, if the population of Africa continues to grow as expected over the next number of years, then by 2015, incredibly, there will be more cities in Africa with at least a million people than in either Europe or North America (Cohen 2006). Over the next 30 years, virtually all of the world's population growth is expected to be concentrated in urban areas in the developing world. 6 STUDY UNIT 1.1 1.1.3 Population growth In the developed world, the population growth rate has been decreasing. This decrease is attributed to sound health services, including family planning, which has become more accessible and which has resulted in a drop in birth rates (Castles & Miller 2003:68±93). But in developing countries not all inhabitants have equal access to resources such as basic health services, educational facilities and economic development. Sub-Saharan Africa currently has two-thirds of the world's HIV infections (about 28.5 million cases in 2002). In some nations, including Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland and Zimbabwe, at least 30% of the population is infected with HIV. In South Africa the HIV positive population is estimated at approximately 5.2 million (Statistics South Africa 2006). Despite this epidemic, considerable population growth is predicted (Macionis & Parrillo 2004:390). The population of Africa is growing rapidly ± almost twice as fast as in any other major region of the world. Approximately 70% of this growth will take place in African cities and towns. Information on the population of a country is therefore vital and such information is best obtained by means of census surveys, as is the case in South Africa. KwaZulu- Natal has the largest share of the South African population. Just over 20% of the population lives in this province (Statistics South Africa 2006). 1.1.4 Features of urban life that contribute to criminality Urban living involves not only opportunities and excitement, but also various problems. Problems such as poor housing, poor education and crime seem more intense in cities than elsewhere. These problems do not exist in isolation. On the contrary, many connections between such problems exist, such as poverty, poor housing and education, crime, and racial and ethnic tensions. Urban problems are partly a product of cities but also a product of the structure and values of society itself (Macionis & Parrillo 2004:339). Cities throughout the world exhibit an incredible diversity of characteristics, economic structures, levels of infrastructure, historic origins, patterns of growth and degrees of formal planning. In spite of this, many of the problems that they face are strikingly familiar. For one thing, as cities grow, they become increasingly diverse. Every city has its relatively more affluent and relatively poorer neighbourhoods. But in developing countries, poorer neighbourhoods can have dramatically lower levels of basic services. Consequently, a large number of urban residents in developing countries suffer to a greater or lesser extent from severe environmental health challenges associated with insufficient access to clean drinking water, inadequate sewerage facilities, and insufficient solid waste disposal facilities. Improving public sanitation is a major urban environmental challenge that needs to be immediately addressed in virtually all cities in the developing world. In African cities, waste management has been described as a monster that has proved resistant to most efforts made by city authorities, state and federal governments and professionals alike.  Demography and urbanisation 7 The extent to which urban growth affects the local ecosystem can be controlled somewhat by high-quality land management. Land is an essential component of all urban growth, yet in most cities there have been virtually no effective measures to control land development. The presence of slum areas and squatter camps bears witness to this lack of control measures. An estimated 72% of the urban population of Africa lives in slums. Sub-Saharan Africa faces a greater set of development changes than any other major region of the world. A current list of the region's ailments includes low productivity in agriculture and industry, a lack of foreign exchange, high indebtedness, a poor balance of payments position, political instability, chronic mismanagement of economic resources and high levels of corruption. The region contains a growing share of the world's absolute poor. In 1980, one out of every 10 poor people lived in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2000, that ratio had risen to one in three. And future projections predict that soon it will be one in two, with increasing numbers of the poor living in urban areas (Cohen 2006). Congestion in many large cities can also be extremely severe and air pollution is now a serious environmental concern in many cities. Crime rates are higher in urban areas than in rural areas. It is not only that urban areas have more people than rural areas. Rather, there is probably something about urban living conditions that leads to higher crime rates. Although poverty is commonly cited as a reason for high urban crime rates, many rural areas are also poor and yet have lower crime rates than their urban counterparts. Thus, other features of urban life must contribute to criminality, as listed by Barkan and Bryjak (2004:41):. population density: many people living closely together which raises frustration crowded conditions levels which can result in violence. lack of privacy within a household where people who are often unrelated availability of alcohol and illegal substances live together with a consequent. the at places where people socially, bars and shebeens gather. overcrowded transportation services can contribute to violence and other crime. which raises frustration levels which limited employment opportunities: can result in violence. Unemployment results in the destabilisa- tion of the household. In an unstable family, the children use violence and relative deprivation: aggression as a means of coping with the frustration of limited opportunities.. Rapid urbanisation leads to increased unemployment and greater demands being placed on the consumer. The result is relative deprivation, where the social positions of others are perceived as being affluent ones, and this adds fuel to feelings of frustration and envy. Crime may be a means of coping with such negative feelings, which increases the potential for crimes against property and violent crimes in particular. The evidence that geographical location affects crime rates is important for understanding why people commit crime because it reinforces the idea that the social environment influences the risk of crime. This idea is the basis of the sociological explanations of criminal behaviour. 8 STUDY UNIT 1.1 ACTIVITY 1 Identify a city in which you live or one which is nearest to your home. List problems which in your opinion contribute to crime in that city.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.1.5 South African cities In the rapidly industrialising economy of South Africa, approximately 60% of the population now lives in urban areas. Until the early 1990s, residence in South Africa's city centres and their well-serviced suburbs remained the exclusive preserve of whites, with the country 's black, Indian and coloured populations relegated to poor, densely populated townships on the urban periphery. With the end of apartheid and the country 's formal reintegration into world politics and trade, these previously forbidden cities became primary destinations for people from throughout South Africa and the African continent. While politicians and business leaders celebrated 10 years of democracy, in 2004 urban residents were increasingly struggling over space, service provision and their livelihoods (Landau 2005:1116). The country 's inner cities have for the first time become the primary destinations for people from beyond South Africa's borders. As the heart of Southern Africa's economy, the Gauteng province (home to Johannesburg and Pretoria) has been the central point for these flows, making migration (along with HIV/AIDS) one of Johannesburg's most prominent demographic features. Between the two national censuses in 1996 and 2001, Gauteng's foreign-born population increased from 4.8% of the total population to 5.4%, representing an increase from 66 205 to 102 326 people. However, these figures both undercount total numbers of non-nationals and fail to capture the dramatic changes in the specific neighbourhoods that have become primary immigrant destinations (Landau 2005:1118). A recent survey in central Johannesburg (Leggett 2003) found, for example, that close to one-quarter of inner-city residents were foreign-born. Failing economies and violence in neighbouring countries, together with South Africa's efforts to encourage retail tourism and investment, as well as the decline in industrial production in the former homelands indicate growing numbers of international and domestic migrants reaching the city in the coming years (Landau 2005:1119). Importantly, foreigners are not the only ones moving to the cities. Leggett's study found that 68% of inner-city Johannesburg residents reported moving to their present household in the past five years. Although shifts within the city partially explain this, at least 11% of the city 's South African residents counted in the 2002 census had been in Johannesburg for less than five years. While figures for the country 's other primary cities are less striking, they too have risen. As black South Africans claim space in the cities from which they were previously excluded, they are confronting non-nationals also seeking safety or livelihoods in the country 's urban centres (Landau 2005:1119). The convergence of newly urbanised South Africans and  Demography and urbanisation 9 non-nationals creates an environment of resource scarcity and, combined with political and economic transition, places a premium on the rights to residence, employment and social services. A 1998 survey conducted by the Southern African Migration Project revealed that 87% of South Africans believed the country was letting in too many foreigners. Urban South Africans also clearly link the presence of non-nationals with the country 's social ills. Among these, crime features most prominently, but they also credit foreigners with aggravating the incidence of HIV/AIDS, unemployment and overcrowding, and with undermining social service delivery. Nationally, 48% of the South African population felt that foreigners were a criminal threat (Landau 2005:1120). Despite South Africans' suspicion of foreigners' criminality, it is ironic that people throughout Southern Africa fear South Africa's indigenous tsotsis and gangsters. The subsequent marginalisation of South Africa's foreign-born population has significance that goes beyond the welfare of non-nationals. The lack of access to identity documents and financial services has made immigrants particularly vulnerable to abuse at the hands of thieves and the police (Landau 2005:1126). 1.1.6 Can high crime rates in urban places be reduced? Macionis and Parrillo (2004:364) highlight the following proposals to reduce high crime rates in cities:. improving the physical design of buildings: Urban planner Oscar Newman maintains that building design plays an important part in controlling crime. Poorly designed buildings, such as high-rise apartment blocks, serve to encourage crime because they isolate inhabitants from each other, creating many unwatched places such as stairs, lifts and corridors where crime can easily occur. Newman argues that crime can be reduced if designers can position windows and entries, and prescribe paths of movement and areas of activity, so as to provide inhabitants with continuous natural surveillance of the street where designs create what Newman refers to as ``defensible space''. People can protect their own communities naturally as they supervise and take on responsibility for the areas in which they live, rather than rely on security guards and police for protection. The emphasis of Newman's system of defensible space is territoriality and surveillance. In terms of territoriality, buildings and grounds are subdivided into zones of influence to discourage outsiders from entering and to encourage residents to defend their areas. In terms of surveillance, buildings should be designed to allow easy observation of the related territory (Shaftoe & Read having street patrols by local citizens: 2005:249).. Patrols, as well as neighbourhood crime watch organisations, sensitise community members to the problem as they targeting vulnerable areas: involve everyone in watching out for suspicious behaviour.. Special efforts should be made to control crime in creating citizens' boards: areas such as taxi ranks, schools, public transport zones and shopping centres.. Members of all racial and ethnic groups should be represented on these boards to fight for more prisons and police, and to place 10 STUDY UNIT 1.1 pressure on legislators to reform the laws that let many criminals slip through adopting a policy of tougher punishment: with little or no punishment.. Increase the severity of the jail instilling a sense of social responsibility: sentences for each subsequent offence.. Ask parents and educators to commit themselves to this task so that fewer young people will be drawn into crime. Proposals such as these have already yielded positive effects by reducing opportunities for committing certain categories of crime such as housebreaking and vehicle theft. However, can they produce long-term results? These ``get tough'' approaches do little to solve the root causes of crime; rather, they deal only with the consequences. Long-term reductions in crime probably depend on increasing economic opportunity in poor communities, community efforts at policing the streets, greater involvement by churches and local community groups, and efforts at upgrading neighbourhoods. ACTIVITY 2 List any high-crime areas near your home or near the home of someone you know.................................................................................................................... What do you suggest can be done to make community members less vulnerable and to reduce crime in this area?...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... my If you need help with this issue or just want to discuss it, why not take your concerns to the Unisa website for this module and discuss it with your fellow students and lecturer. Let's see how we can help each other create safer neighbourhoods! 1.1.7 Conclusion In demographic terms, it is also important to distinguish between urbanisation and urban growth. In developing countries the problem is the rapidly increasing urban population, who require the provision of services such as health care and housing. The resultant demand contributes to social problems such as poverty and overpopulation, and criminologists are concerned with the possibility of crime becoming a means of coping with such problems. Rapid urbanisation with its subsequent problems is universally regarded as a crime risk factor. Demographically, South Africa has a young population, and criminal convictions are the highest among young males. Therefore, a predominantly young population with a high unemployment rate, coupled with rapid urbanisation, can be considered high crime risk factors.  Demography and urbanisation 11 Cities face similar problems which contribute to criminality and these are listed as follows:. lack of proper services in poorer neighbourhoods. lack of control in terms of land development. population density. household overcrowding. presence of places for social gatherings. unemployment South African city dwellers encounter particular problems with foreign-born residents and experience them as a threat in terms of crime and resources. Proposals to address urban problems are primarily short-term solutions while long- term solutions require pertinent economic investment to uplift cities, to prevent the creation of slum areas, to provide proper services and to control crime. 1.1.8 Self-assessment questions 1 Rapid urbanisation places increasing pressure on urban social resources which in turn causes conflict in certain areas. Why is rapid urbanisation of interest to criminologists? 1 It causes family violence. 2 It has the potential to destroy the environment. 3 It creates the potential for crime. 4 It creates chaos in the city centres. 5 It results in overcrowding. 2 The increase in the population in urban areas cannot only be attributed to migration from rural areas, but also to a relocation of urban boundaries, the natural increase in the established urban population and the relocation of people from other urban areas. This is known as 1 urban development. 2 demography. 3 immigration. 4 urbanisation. 5 urban growth. 3 Which of the following aspects contribute the most to the high crime rate in certain urban areas according to Barkan and Bryjak (2004)? 1 unemployment, overcrowding and relative deprivation 2 urbanisation, property crimes and overcrowding 3 relative deprivation, urban growth and theft 4 poverty, unemployment and shortage of housing 5 violent crimes, unemployment and overcrowding 4 Macionis and Parrillo (2004:364) made a few proposals to reduce the high crime rate in cities. Which of his proposals has been left out from the list below? 12 STUDY UNIT 1.1. street patrols by local citizens. instil a sense of social responsibility. adopt a policy of tougher punishment. create citizens' boards to stimulate change. target vulnerable areas 5 Urban South Africans clearly link the presence of..................... with the country 's social ills. 1 urbanites 2 tourists 3 migrants 4 foreigners 5 non-nationals 1.1.9 Self-assessment answers 1 3 2 5 3 1 4 improving the physical design of buildings (refer to section 1.1.6) 5 4 or 5 1.1.10 Feedback on activities Activity 1 Feedback will differ for each student. Refer to section 1.1.4 for guidelines. Activity 2 Feedback will differ for each student. Refer to section 1.1.6 for guidelines.  13 STUDY UNIT 1.2 Economic factors ± economic systems and vulnerability to crime Dr M Barkhuizen 1.2.1 Introduction 1.2.2 Capitalism-socialism continuum 1.2.2.1 Adam Smith (1723±1790): founder of capitalism 1.2.2.2 Karl Marx (1818±1883): father of socialism 1.2.2.3 John Maynard Keynes (1883±1946): creator of the concept of the mixed economy 1.2.3 Vulnerability to crime and economic factors 1.2.4 Economic inequalities and crime 1.2.5 Conclusion 1.2.6 Self-assessment questions 1.2.7 Self-assessment answers 1.2.8 Feedback on activities LEARNING OUTCOMES After completing this study unit, you should be able to. distinguish between capitalism, socialism and a mixed economy. explain and illustrate how economic factors influence vulnerability to crime 14 STUDY UNIT 1.2 Glossary of terms Write down the key words that capture the essence of the following terms: Capitalism.......................................................................................................... Socialism............................................................................................................ Mixed economy................................................................................................ (Relative) poverty............................................................................................ 1.2.1 Introduction We can accept the principle that crimes against property, such as theft and fraud, are linked to economic systems. Criminologists need to take note of factors within these economic systems which make individuals more or less vulnerable to crime. For this reason we will begin this theme with a holistic overview of the most prevalent economic systems in the world, and indicate how certain factors increase individuals' vulnerability. We will then discuss unemployment and poverty, and indicate the role of these factors in causing criminality. No political system in the world is infallible or without its faults. The same applies to economic approaches or policy directions. All political systems are based on some or other economic system, or a combination of systems. When we look at political and economic systems in this way, we are not suggesting that the systems themselves give rise to crime. It is, however, true that in any system there are vulnerable people, or people who might become vulnerable if the existing system were to change. In terms of economic policy, the countries of the world can generally speaking be divided into two fundamental categories: capitalist and socialist. We will now consider a broad description of these two categories. 1.2.2 Capitalism-socialism continuum Both capitalism and socialism have political and ideological connotations which are often highly subjective, depending on one's point of view. However, the practice of simply categorising the countries of the world overlooks the complexity of the global economy (Curran & Renzetti 1993:26). The economic policy of a country is not so much a choice between the two extremes of capitalism and socialism. Rather, the issue revolves around the extent to which the country applies the principles of a given system. A country 's policy can therefore also change: sometimes very slowly and sometimes, as in the case of eastern Europe and specifically the former East Germany, with dramatic speed. These examples also emphasise the principle that there is no such thing as a purely capitalist country as Adam Smith suggested; and therefore there is also no such thing as a purely socialist country as Karl Marx intended (Curran & Renzetti 1993:27). To understand these systems, we will first look at their founders' ideas, and then move to a more modern  Economic factors ± economic systems and vulnerability to crime 15 point of departure which involves a compromise and therefore a more workable alternative. 1.2.2.1 Adam Smith (1723±1790): founder of capitalism Adam Smith set out his view of capitalism in The wealth of nations , which appeared in 1776. The four main points in Smith's view of capitalism are as follows: private ownership 1 All the roleplayers in the market want to improve their positions, and the concept of is central to this. The accumulation of wealth and the control of industries by individuals are important, and this means that profit is morally justifiable and socially desirable. In this way, individuals keep the economy Competition working (Curran & Renzetti 1993:28). 2 plays an important role. The market contains other players with the same ambition to make a profit, but a good/product or service still has to be bought by consumers, and so prices must stay within limits. Competition is Supply and demand supposed to prevent the formation of monopolies. 3 are important. If the demand for a particular product is non-interventionist laissez-faire high and the supply is low, prices will rise. The reverse is also true. 4 The or approach is vital. The market must be allowed to function freely, and the state should certainly not interfere (Curran & Renzetti 1993:28). 1.2.2.2 Karl Marx (1818±1883): father of socialism It is important to note that Marx was born about a century later than Smith, and was therefore able to make a thorough study of Smith's preferred system, critique it and propose an alternative system. In the second part of his work, Das Kapital , Marx launches a vitriolic (bitter) attack on capitalism as seen by Smith. Marx regarded capitalism as a transient phase which would be followed by socialism. The transition would occur when the organised working class (the proletariat) overthrew the dominant owners or bourgeoisie. On considering the oppression and exploitation of the working class, Marx observed that ``the bourgeoisie... above all, is its own grave diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable'' (Curran & Renzetti 1993:29). Marx's ideas are diametrically opposed to Smith's. In Marx's view, there should be strict limits to private enterprise. All property, and the production process, should be controlled by the state to the benefit and in the interests of the masses, since private ownership leads to exploitation and inequality. Personal profit must be replaced by a system in which everyone has equal access to resources, and all resources are utilised to the advantage of everyone. Marx experienced a capitalist system in which competition was limited, influential capitalists controlled the business world and the needs of the masses were ignored. He therefore believed that the state should not permit any competition. He also believed that resources and the means of production should be controlled by the 16 STUDY UNIT 1.2 state, rather than by a small group of powerful capitalists as was the case under the capitalist system. This prevented the proper functioning of supply and demand. Finally, state control of the markets was a vital way of providing for the people's needs. A socialist state would therefore be actively involved in economic planning (Curran & Renzetti 1993:29). 1.2.2.3 John Maynard Keynes (1883±1946): creator of the concept of the mixed economy Keynes was born in the year of Marx's death, and like Marx was able to form opinions about the theorising which had gone before. Keynes's view is a good example of a balance between capitalism and socialism. This is not to say that he represents a precise midpoint between the two approaches, though elements of both Smith's and Marx's principles are to be found in his work. His theories appear in The general theory of employment, interest and money (1936) and were largely inspired by the Great Depression of the 1930s, which drastically changed the lives of most Americans. More than a quarter of the work force lost their jobs, nine million people lost their savings when banks collapsed, and a million families lost their homes when home loans were revoked (Curran & Renzetti 1993:30). People were unemployed, not because they were lazy, unproductive or uneducable, but simply because there was no work for them (Tobin in Serfontein 1995:7). Keynes believed that the state should be actively involved in economic affairs to prevent disasters like the Depression. The state should help to create work for everyone, for instance by lowering interest rates, which would stimulate investment. The state should also initiate programmes which would increase the incomes of the needy. They would have more money, and by spending it they would stimulate the economy. He also supported private ownership and profit (the accumulation of wealth), but he thought that capitalism should be subject to certain controls in order to prevent crisis situations from arising. Sergei V Stepashin, a former president of Russia, and the former general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party, Jiang Zemin, supported a mixed economy. Their http://www.rmi.net/race/ views might not correspond exactly with those of Keynes, but they do indicate a newsletter/stepashin-bio.html) break with socialism (Curran & Renzetti 1993:30±31). ACTIVITY 1 What is the current economic system of South Africa?...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... Is this system effective in your opinion? Give reasons for your answer....................................................................................................................  Economic factors ± economic systems and vulnerability to crime 17................................................................................................................... How would you change things if you could?...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 1.2.3 Vulnerability to crime and economic factors As we saw in the previous discussion, people's lives are affected by the political and economic systems under which they have to operate, which makes