Grade 8 Geography Class Notes PDF

Study Notes Social Science Chapter 1: Topic 1: What is Geography? Unit 1: The Western Hemisphere Geography is the study of the Earth's surface, its features, and the people who live on it. It involves understanding the physical characteristics of the planet, such as its landforms, climate...

Study Notes Social Science Chapter 1: Topic 1: What is Geography? Unit 1: The Western Hemisphere Geography is the study of the Earth's surface, its features, and the people who live on it. It involves understanding the physical characteristics of the planet, such as its landforms, climate, and natural resources, as well as the human activities that shape and are influenced by these features. 2. Types of geography Physical Geography: This branch focuses on the natural features of the Earth, including mountains, rivers, oceans, and climate patterns. Human Geography: This branch explores how people interact with their environment, including population distribution, cultural patterns, economic activities, and political systems. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): These are computer systems that analyze and visualize geographic data, helping us understand spatial relationships and patterns.  2 3. Themes of Geography Location: 1. Absolute location: 2. Relative location: The position of a place in relation to other places. Place: Human-Environment Interaction: Movement: Region: Areas with common characteristics, such as physical features, cultural traits, or historical events. 4. Types of maps Topographic/Relief Maps These maps show the Earth's surface features, including mountains, valleys, hills, and plains. They often use contour lines to represent elevation. Political Maps Political maps show the boundaries of countries, states, and other political divisions. They may also indicate capital cities, major cities, and other significant places. Thematic/Choropleth Maps Thematic maps use colors or patterns to show specific information, such as population density, climate, or economic activity. Climate Maps Climate maps show average weather conditions, such as temperature and precipitation, in different regions.  3 Nautical Charts Nautical charts are specialized maps used for navigation on water. They show depths, currents, hazards, and other information important for safe navigation. Digital Maps Digital maps are electronic maps that can be viewed and manipulated on computers or mobile devices. They often incorporate GPS technology to provide real-time location information. Reading Maps- Using the cardinal directions and coordinates  4 Longitude Definition: Longitude is the angular distance of a place east or west of the Prime Meridian. Key Points: ○ Measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. ○ Ranges from 0° (Prime Meridian) to 180° east or west. ○ Used to determine time zones. ○ Lines of longitude are called meridians. Latitude Definition: Latitude is the angular distance of a place north or south of the Equator. Key Points: ○ Measured in degrees, minutes, and seconds. ○ Ranges from 0° (Equator) to 90° north or south. ○ Used to determine climate zones. ○ Lines of latitude are called parallels. Together, latitude and longitude form a coordinate system that allows us to pinpoint the exact location of any place on Earth. Example -23°40°N. 5.Geospatial mapping Tools 1. Geographic Information Systems (GIS): ○ GIS is a powerful tool that combines maps, satellite images, and other geographic data to create detailed and informative maps.  5 ○ It can be used to analyze patterns of population density, migration, and resource distribution. ○ GIS can also help us understand the impact of natural disasters, climate change, and urbanization. 2. Global Positioning Systems (GPS): ○ GPS uses satellites to determine the precise location of a device on Earth's surface. ○ It is widely used in navigation, surveying, and mapping. ○ GPS can also be used to track the movement of people, animals, and vehicles. 3. Remote Sensing: ○ Remote sensing involves collecting data about Earth's surface from a distance, often using satellites or aircraft. ○ Satellite imagery can be used to monitor changes in land use, deforestation, and pollution. ○ Remote sensing data can also be used to track weather patterns and natural disasters. How Geospatial Mapping Tools are Used in Social Studies ○ Mapping historical events and migrations ○ Analyzing the geographic context of historical events ○ Mapping cultural regions and language distribution ○ Analyzing the diffusion of cultures and ideas ○ Mapping economic activities and trade routes ○ Analyzing patterns of economic development and inequality ○ Mapping natural resources and environmental hazards ○ Analyzing the impact of human activities on the environment ○ Mapping urban growth and development patterns ○ Analyzing the impact of urban sprawl and transportation infrastructure. Topic 2: Earth’s Physical Geography. The sun is at the center of our solar system. Earth and other planets orbit, or move around, the sun.  6 Heat and light from the sun make life on Earth possible. Earth spins on its axis. The axis is an imaginary line that runs through Earth’s center from the North Pole to the South Pole. Earth spins once around its axis every 24 hours. This is called one rotation. This rotation puts some areas of Earth in sunlight and some in darkness. These periods are day and night. Earth makes one complete trip around the sun each year. This is called one revolution. A complete revolution takes 365 ¼ days. Most calendar years are 365 days, but one day is added to the end of February every fourth year. This extra day is called a leap day and these years are called leap years. Earth is made of three layers. The center of Earth is called the core. The core actually has two parts: a solid inner core and a liquid metal outer core. The mantle is the middle layer. The mantle is made up of hot rock that is about 1,800 miles thick. The outer layer of Earth is called the crust. This is a rocky shell around the surface of Earth. It is from 2 to 75 miles thick. Terms Axis: An imaginary line through the center of a planet. Orbit: The path of one celestial body around another. Solstice: The point at which the Sun is farthest from the equator. Equinox: The point at which the Sun crosses the celestial equator. The Sun: Our Star Energy Source: Nuclear fusion reactions within its core generate immense energy. Life-Giving Light and Heat: Provides the energy necessary for life on Earth. Earth's Motion Rotation: Earth spins on its axis, causing day and night. Revolution: Earth orbits around the Sun, causing seasons. Tilt of the Axis: Earth's axis is tilted at 23.5 degrees, influencing the intensity of sunlight and seasons. Earth is tilted. Because of the tilt, not all places on Earth receive the same amount of direct sunlight at the same time. About half of Earth is tilted toward the sun and half is tilted away from the sun at any time. Because of this, when it is winter in the Northern Hemispheres it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. The North Pole is tilted furthest toward the sun on about  7 June 21. In the Northern Hemisphere this is called the summer solstice, or the beginning of summer. The Northern Hemisphere receives the most direct rays of the sun at this time of year and has the most hours of daylight each day. The North Pole is tilted furthest away from the sun on about December 22. In the Northern Hemisphere this is the winter solstice, the day on which winter begins. The sun’s rays reach their southernmost point on this day. The Southern Hemisphere experiences summer and long hours of daylight at this time (focus on what causes seasons, Leap years and the difference between Rotation and Revolution) Seasons Summer Solstice: Longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere, shortest in the Southern Hemisphere. Winter Solstice: Shortest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere, longest in the Southern Hemisphere. Vernal Equinox: Equal day and night, marks the beginning of spring. Autumnal Equinox: Equal day and night, marks the beginning of autumn. Solar Eclipse  8 Occurs when: The Moon passes between the Earth and the Sun, blocking sunlight. Lunar Eclipse Occurs when: Earth passes between the Sun and the Moon, casting a shadow on the Moon. Topic 3: EARTH’S PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY- Structure of the earth There are four layers of the earth- Crust, Mantle Outer core and inner core. Crust -has the lithosphere, Biosphere, Hydrosphere and atmosphere Mantle Outer core - liquid Inner Core- Solid. Earth has four major physical subsystems: the hydrosphere, the lithosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. The hydrosphere contains all of Earth’s water. About 70 percent of Earth’s surface is covered in water. This water is in oceans, seas, lakes, ponds, rivers, groundwater, and ice. The lithosphere is Earth’s land. The land includes mountains, hills, plateaus,  9 plains, and the land beneath the ocean. The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds Earth. Most of Earth’s atmosphere is contained within 16 miles of Earth’s surface. Outer space begins 100 miles above the surface of Earth. The biosphere includes all living things on Earth or in the atmosphere. Animals, plants, and people are part of the biosphere. Topic 4 Landforms Landforms are natural features of the Earth's surface, while bodies of water are large masses of water. Together, they shape our planet's geography and influence climate, ecosystems, and human activities. Mountains: Elevated landforms that rise sharply from the surrounding area. Hills: Smaller, less steep elevations than mountains. Plains: Flat, low-lying areas. Plateaus: Flat, elevated areas with steep sides. Deserts: Dry, arid regions with little or no vegetation. Forests: Areas dominated by trees and other woody plants. Islands: Pieces of land surrounded by water. Landforms are formed through various geological processes, including Erosion, Deposition, tectonic activity,  10 volcanic activity, weathering, and the actions of water, wind, and ice. The two processes: Weathering vs Erosion Erosion is defined as the displacement of solids by wind, water, and ice. Weathering is defined as the decomposition of rocks, soil, and minerals by direct contact with the atmosphere. The eroded materials undergo displacement. The weathered materials do not undergo displacement. Constructive and Destructive Processes  11 Topic 5: Types of Mountains The process of mountain formation. The surface of the Earth is made up of huge slabs called tectonic plates. These plates are not stationary; instead, they continuously move. When two different slabs or tectonic plates collide with each other, the land can sometimes be pushed upward, forming mountains. Many of the mountain ranges on Earth formed due to the collision of tectonic plates millions of years ago  12 Topic 6: The Hydrosphere A layer of water at or near Earth’s surface. It includes all liquid and frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapour. It is divided into freshwater and saltwater  13 The Hydrological Cycle The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous circulation of water in the Earth-Atmosphere system. At its core, the water cycle is the motion of the water from the ground to the atmosphere and back again. Of the many processes involved in the hydrologic cycle, the most important are: evaporation transpiration condensation precipitation 14  15 The River system a river and its tributaries make up a river system. A river system is also called a drainage basin or watershed. A river’s watershed includes the river, all its tributaries, and any groundwater resources in the area. The end of a river is its mouth. Here, the river empties into another body of water—a larger river, a lake, or the ocean. Many of the largest rivers empty into the ocean. Focus on the The lower course Meander Floodplain Delta Estuary River mouth. Topic 7: CLIMATE We divide climate zones by their latitude on the planet: Tropical climates are close to the equator and have high temperatures and rainfall. Dry climates are immediately north and south of the tropical zone.  16 Temperate climates are north and south of the dry zone, although they often overlap in latitude with continental climates in North America and Asia. These continental climates are less influenced by oceans and may have wider climate extremes. Polar climates are only in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Topic 8: What Is Climate Change? Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. Such shifts can be natural, due to changes in the sun’s activity or large volcanic eruptions. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and raising temperatures. The main greenhouse gases that are causing climate change include carbon dioxide and methane. These come from using gasoline for driving a car or coal for heating a building, for example. Clearing land and cutting down forests can also release carbon dioxide. Agriculture, oil and gas operations are major sources of methane emissions.  17 Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land use are among the main sectors causing greenhouse gases. Mitigation and Adaptation Mitigation – reducing climate change – involves reducing the flow of heat-trapping greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, either by reducing sources of these gases (for example, the burning of fossil fuels for electricity, heat, or transport) or enhancing the “sinks” that accumulate and store these gases (such as the oceans, forests, and soil). The goal of mitigation is to avoid significant human interference with Earth's climate, “stabilize greenhouse gas levels in a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, ensure that food production is not threatened, and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner. Adaptation – adapting to life in a changing climate – involves adjusting to actual or expected future climate. The goal is to reduce our risks from the harmful effects of climate change (like sea-level rise, more intense extreme weather events, or food insecurity). It also includes making the most of any potential beneficial opportunities associated with climate change (for example, longer growing seasons or increased yields in some regions). Topic 9: Population Geography Population geography is the study of the spatial distribution of the human population, and of the population characteristics of individual regions and places. It includes studies of population growth and decline, as well as the migration of people from one place to another. Population Density & Distribution Population density varies across the world  18 The way in which the global population is spread across the world is the population distribution Population density is calculated by dividing the total population by the total area ○ The total area can be on different scales (region, country, continent). Population is not evenly spread, and some areas are densely populated whilst others are sparsely populated ○ The population density is affected by a range of factors, both physical and human. Physical factors Climate ○ Population density tends to be lower in colder regions and tropical deserts ○ The extremes of temperature create a harsh living environment where growing crops and accessing water are difficult Water supply ○ Settlements are usually located near a water supply for drinking, washing, etc. ○ If water is scarce or difficult to obtain, then population density tends to be lower Natural resources ○ These include minerals such as coal and oil ○ Areas with large amounts of natural resources tend to have higher population density ○ This depends on how easily the minerals can be obtained Relief ○ Mountainous areas tend to have lower population density due to difficulties in building and growing crops ○ Population densities are higher where the land is flat or gently sloping Soil quality ○ Population densities are highest where the soil fertility and quality are best  19 ○ This makes it easier to grow crops Human factors Economic ○ More people live where there are more jobs ○ The number of jobs is often affected by the infrastructure (transport/communication) and capital (the money available) Political ○ Government investment in an area can improve the infrastructure, which increases industry/business and attracts more people Social ○ The better the housing, education and services the more people are likely to be attracted to an area, increasing the population density ○ The birth and death rates also affect the population density Cultural ○ In some cultures, larger families are valued highly or religious beliefs dictate larger families ○ This can increase the population density within a country. Impacts of low population density Difficulties in accessing services such as healthcare and education, particularly in rural areas Poor access to markets and trade A lack of economic activities Increased rural-urban migration Topic 10: What are the main types of migration? Migration is the movement of people across an official boundary, either internationally or nationally, intending to create a permanent place of residence  20 Migration can be permanent, temporary, voluntary or forced. It can be international or internal. Permanent migration is when someone moves from one place to another and has no plans to return to their original home. Temporary migration is limited by time. This could be for seasonal employment. Forced migration involves the migrant having no choice but to move. Voluntary migration is the opposite of this. International migration is when a person moves from one country to another country. For example, people moving from the UK to the USA. Internal migration is when people migrate within the same country or region. An example of this would be someone migrating from Manchester to London. Push and pull factors There are different types of migration: ○ Voluntary ○ Involuntary or forced ○ Internal ○ Political: internally displaced, refugees, and/or asylum seekers The reasons for these moves are the same: pull and push factors The push factor is what the migrant's current situation is like; it is what makes them think about leaving their home country or place of origin The pull factor is the perceived outcome ○ This is what people think the place of destination will bring them Depending on their end goal, each migrant has different push and pull forces ○ What works for one migrant might not work for another These factors can be further divided into: ○ Social ○ Economic  21 ○ Political ○ Environmental High levels of unemployment are a push factor, whereas higher wages and a better lifestyle are a pull factor Push-Pull Factors Barriers to migration There are personal, national and legal barriers to migration Personal barriers include emotional and financial factors; these include: ○ The cost of migrating: Closing down costs: selling of a home, legal fees, etc. Moving costs: transport, packing and shipping, visas, etc. Setting up costs: renting or buying a home, legal fees, schooling, etc. ○ Emotional costs such as not seeing loved ones again, leaving behind their culture and country, etc. Immigration laws present the greatest legal barrier to migration National barriers occur at a physical or political level: ○ Distance between origin and destination ○ Physical danger ○ Blocked from leaving a country Voluntary and involuntary migration Voluntary migration involves the free choice of movement either internally or internationally ○ The usual reason is economic for work, promotion, etc. ○ In developing countries, this is usually internal from rural to urban areas  22 ○ In developed countries, counter-urbanisation is more common—urban to rural Involuntary or forced migration is where the migrant has no choice but to leave their place of origin ○ This is usually an international movement but can also be an internal movement Topic 11: Population pyramids Population pyramids (also known as an age structure graph) are used to display the gender and age structure of a given population ○ They illustrate the distribution of the population across age groups and between male and female They enable governments nationally and regionally to assess the needs of the population for services such as healthcare and education ○ This means the governments can estimate and plan for spending The population pyramid can be used to identify the following groups: ○ Young dependents ○ Old dependents ○ Economically active (working population) ○ Dependency ratio  23 Population Pyramid - Niger LEDCs like Niger have a concave pyramid shape Stages 1 and 2 of the model and this indicates: ○ high birth rate ○ low life expectancy ○ high death rate but starting to decrease ○ high infant mortality rate ○ a young dependent population dominates  24 Population pyramid of Nepal LEDCs/NICs that are a little further along the demographic transition, such as Nepal, have a convex pyramid shape Stage 3 of the demographic transition model This indicates: ○ decreasing birth rate ○ increasing life expectancy ○ decreasing death rate ○ decreasing infant mortality  25 ○ larger working-age population Population pyramid of the USA MEDC countries such as the USA have a column-shape Stage 4 of the demographic transition model This indicates: ○ decreasing birth rate ○ increasing life expectancy ○ decreasing death rate ○ low infant mortality  26 ○ larger working-age population Population pyramid of Japan MEDC countries such as Japan have a pentagon shape with a narrowing base Stage 5 of the demographic transition model This indicates: ○ Decreasing birth rate ○ Increasing life expectancy ○ The death rate is higher than the birth rate due to the ageing population ○ Low infant mortality  27 ○ Ageing population: older dependent population Implications of population structure Population pyramids mean that population issues can be identified There are a range of issues, including: ○ ageing populations ○ falling birth rates ○ impacts of migration Ageing populations Many HIC ( High income Country) are experiencing ageing populations and an increase in the older dependent population. It also results in fewer workers, which means: ○ governments are not able to collect as much tax ○ some areas suffer worker shortages Falling birth rates Countries experiencing falling birth rates include many MEDCs and NICs; the implications of this are: ○ school closures due to fewer children ○ future workforce shortages Migration In some countries, migration can lead to an imbalance in the population structure The UAE has significantly more males than females Approximately 29% of the population are males between the ages of 25 and 39, whereas only 10.5% of the population are women between 25 and 39  28 ○ This is the result of the migration of males to the UAE to work in the oil, gas and construction industries Rapid population growth in some areas as a result of migration can lead to: ○ increased pressure on services such as healthcare and schools ○ a shortage of housing ○ increased traffic congestion ○ increased water and air pollution ○ a shortage of food ○ a lack of clean water Topic 12: Economic Geography 1. Economic Principles- A set of guidelines that govern how we can use the limited resources for the wants we presently have. a) Need vs Wants- Needs: Essential items required for survival, such as food, water, and shelter. Wants: Non-essential items that improve our quality of life, such as entertainment, luxury goods, or travel. b) Renewable resources and non renewable- Renewable Resources: Resources that can be replenished naturally over time, such as solar energy, wind energy, and timber. Non-Renewable Resources: Resources that exist in limited quantities and cannot be replenished on a human timescale, such as fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas) and minerals. c) Supply and demand- Supply: The quantity of a good or service that producers are willing and able to offer at various prices. Demand: The quantity of a good or service that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices.  29 Economies are classified as developed, developing, and emerging markets, each with different characteristics. 1. Developed economies have advanced infrastructure and stability, 2. developing economies face poverty and political instability. 3. Emerging markets is an economy from a country that is transitioning from a developing economy to a developed one. Furthermore the economy is divided into systems , Market, Command, Mixed and Traditional.  30 Topic 13: Economic Sectors An economic activity is the production, purchase or selling of goods and services. Economic activities can be grouped into five sectors: ○ Primary - mining, fishing, farming etc. ○ Secondary - factory workers, clothing, steel production etc. ○ Tertiary - nurses, lawyers, teachers, shop assistants, chefs ○ Quaternary - hi-tech scientists, research and development ○ Quinary - High level decision makers. 31 32