Citizenship Education Grade 8 Student Textbook PDF

CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION STUDENT TEXT BOOK GRADE 8 Writers Wondwossen Mengistu Yoseph watte Content Editor Dereje Fikre Curr. and Inst.Design Editor Mulugeta Sharew Language Editor Shegaw Wedaj Illustrator Wasihun Dagne Tesfahunegn Minwuyelet Book Designer Zelalem Birhan Contents Introduction 1 Unit One: Virtue Ethics 3 1.1. The concept of virtue ethics 4 1.1.1 Ethics and virtue ethics 5 1.2. The qualities and principles of virtue ethics 10 1.2.1. Honesty 12 1.2.2. Courage 15 1.2.3. Compassion 17 1.2.4. Generosity 19 1.2.5. Fairness 21 1.2.6. Self-Discipline: 23 1.2.7. Prudence 25 1.2.8. Civic virtues: 28 1.3. Importance of virtue ethics 32 1.4. Virtue ethics in daily life 34 Unit summary 38 Glossary 39 Unit Review Questions 40 II C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Unit Two: State and Government 44 2.1 State structures 45 2.1.1 Unitary state structure 47 2.1.2 Federal state structure 52 2.1.3 Confederation (Confederal arrangement ) 59 2.2 Systems of government 61 2.2.1 Parliamentary system of government 62 2.2.2 Presidential systems of government 66 2.3 The Relationship and Difference between State and Government 70 2.4 Forms of government in Ethiopia 73 2.4.1 Strengths and limitations of different forms 77 of government in Ethiopia 77 Unit summary 81 Glossary 82 Unite Review Questions 83 Unit Three: Democracy 86 3.1 The concept of democracy 87 3.2 Fundamental Principles of democracy 91 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k III 3.3 Values of Democracy 100 3.4 The importance of Indigenous democratic values and institutions 108 7.5 The challenges and opportunities of democracy in Ethiopia 111 Unit summary 115 Glossary 116 Unite Review Questions 117 Unit Five: Human Rights 120 4.1. The meaning of constitution and 121 constitutionalism 121 4.2. The purposes of the constitution 125 4.3. The importance of constitutionalism 129 4.4 The Classifications of the constitution 136 4.4.1. Written and Unwritten constitutions 137 4.4.2. Flexible and Rigid Constitutions 137 4.4.3. Effective and Nominal Constitution 138 4.4.4. Federal and Unitary constitution 140 4.5. The need for constitutionalism in 141 sustaining peace and stability. 141 Unit summary 144 IV C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Glossary 145 Unit Review Questions 146 Unit six: Conflict Resolution and Peace Building 149 Human Rights 150 1.5 Classification of Human Rightss 151 5.1.1 The Right to Equality 155 5.2 Human Rights under Regional 159 Constitutions of Ethiopia 159 5.3 Challenges of protecting human rights 163 in Ethiopia 163 Unit summary 171 Glossary 172 Unit Review Questions 173 Unit Description 176 6.1 The concept of Conflict and Peace 177 6.2. The Causes of conflict 181 6.2.1. Conflict resolutions 186 6.2.2. Mechanisms of conflict Resolutions 186 6.3. Peace building 194 6.3.1. Importance of Peace Building 196 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k V 6.4. Indigenous social institutions for resolving conflict in the community. 197 Unit summary 204 Glossary 205 Unit Review Questions 206 Unit Seven: Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving Skills 209 7.1 The meanings of problem solving 210 7.2 Problem-solving steps 213 7.3 Steps of Critical thinking in decision 218 making processes 218 7.4 Skills and habits of critical thinking and problem solving 223 7.5 Strategies for Improving Critical Thinking in Students 229 7.6 The importance of critical thinking skills in problem solving 232 Glossary 236 Unit summary 236 Glossary 237 Unit Review Questions 238 VI C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Introduction Moral and Citizenship Education has now become part of the new Ethiopian education curriculum reform. The major purpose of introducing this subject is to contribute to the democratisation and all rounded development process in our country. Moral and Citizenship education does so to produce responsible, informed, active and virtuous citizens. These qualities of citizens, if achieved successfully, are determinants of social, political and economic development of the country. Cognizant of this fact, this textbook is written for students studying Citizenship Education in Grade 8 for effective realisation of the above values. Thus, it will guide you through the seven units namely virtue ethics, state and government, democracy, constitutionalism, human rights, conflict resolution and peace building, critical thinking and problem solving skills. Each unit begins with a description, the learning out comes and contents. It also provides a list of the key words and concepts to be remembered while you go through each unit. Each unit has sections and section objectives. Brainstorming questions are designed as a starter activity to encourage you to each section and sub sections. The section and sub section number are in the top right corner of each page. On many pages, you will find illustrations, photographs or pictures which illustrate the topic you are studying. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 1 Case studies, role play scenarios and other activities are to provide real or simulated examples of the concept you are studying. At the end of each unit there is also a summary of what you have learned. There is also a glossary of some words which you have been introduced to. Moreover, there are unit review exercises to enable you to test your knowledge, skill and attitudes of the unit content. Each unit goes on in the same way with the unit number and title at the top of each page. This textbook is just one resource which you and your fellow students will use to learn about Citizenship Education at this grade level. Information to support this book will be located with your teacher, in the teacher’s guide book, in other books and in various documents of the ministry of education. It is hoped you will find Citizenship education as one of your favourite subject, since it equips you with the basic concepts of State, Government, Democracy, Human rights, Conflict resolution and Peace building, Critical thinking and of other ethical values. 2 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k UNIT 1 virtue ethics Unit Description This unit of grade eight citizenship education builds on the learning areas of moral education already learned at various grade levels. In this way, the basic concepts of virtue ethics, qualities of virtue eth- ics, the importance of virtue ethics, and virtue ethics in daily life will be introduced and explored. As a result, you are expected to apply virtue and ethical qualities to the promotion of daily activi- ties and the public interest. Keywords Virtue ethics, Ethics, Honesty, Courage, Compassion Generosity, Fairness, Self-discipline, prudence C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 3 Learning Outcomes: Lessons: At the end of this unit, learners will be able to ³ Explain the concept of virtue 1.1 The concept of virtue ethics ethics; 1.2. The qualities and principles ³ Value the qualities and principles of virtue ethics of virtue ethics; 1.3. Importance of virtue ethics ³ Describe the importance of virtue 1.4. Virtue ethics in daily life ethics; ³ Demonstrate the qualities of vir- tue ethics in daily life. Figure 1.1. Students are helping each other in the classroom. 1.1. The concept of virtue ethics 4 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 1.1.1 Ethics and virtue ethics At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Explain what virtue and virtue ethics is ; 1 Differentiate virtue characters from vices; 1 Define what Ethics is; 1 Describe the relationship between Ethics and virtue Ethics; 1Analyse steps for ethical decision making. What do you think of virtue or virtue ethics? Virtue ethics is concerned with the development of one’s character in order to prepare one for good citizenship in an organised community, with the belief that a community composed of people of good character would be a good community. It is the pursuit of understanding and living a moral life. Virtues are citizen dispositions, habits, or characteristics that are conducive or beneficial to the healthy functioning and common good of a community. In other words, these dispositions encompass all positive behaviours and actions. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 5 In society, responsible citizens are expected to exhibit qualities such as courage, generosity, and honesty, among others. This character based approach to morality holds that virtue is acquired through practice. Moral virtue does not come naturally to us. Moral virtues are habits that we develop through practice and imitation of exceptionally virtuous people or especially virtuous actions. It believes that virtue ethics provides an account of what is right and wrong based on what a “virtuous agent” would do. A virtuous person is one whose character traits are all virtues or good and has no vices or bad. L “A virtue,” or “virtues,” is specific character traits that tend to make a person virtuous, or good. For example, honesty, compassion, courage, and so on. L The term “vice” is often associated with bad habits. Vices are the polar opposite of virtues, and they refer to evil or personal corruption. For instance, dishonesty, cowardice, or selfishness, injustice, and so on. Activity 1 Copy the following table into your exercise book and discuss in a group to distinguish between virtues and vices using the example given. Mention those traits of moral Mention those traits of moral charac- character that make a person ter that make a person morally Vices morally good or bad. 1 Honesty Dishonesty 2 3 4 6 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Case study The Fox in The Well A fox fell into a well once upon a time. He was not injured as a result of his fall. He was not in danger of drowning because there was little water in the well, but he couldn’t get out. “Help! Help! Help! Help!” he cried, but no one could hear him. A wolf eventually passed by the well. He was awakened by the call. “Who is down there?” he inquired as he gazed into the well. “It’s me,” exclaimed the fox. “I am grateful that you have come to assist me.” “How did you get down there?” the wolf inquired. “Have you been there a long time? Is the water quite deep? I pity you, poor fellow! That’s not the place for you. I see you have a bad cold. I wish you were there.” “Please don’t talk to me,” the fox cried. “I require assistance. Get me out, and I’ll know you’re sorry for what happened to me.” Activity 2 What did you learn from the above case study? Do you believe the wolf ’s act is one of virtue or vice? Provide adequate justification. What do you suggest about the Wolfs act? V What do we mean by the term ‘ethics’? Before the lesson, take a few moments to write down a definition of what you think the term means. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 7 The study of what good and bad ends to pursue in life, as well as what is right and wrong to do in daily life, is known as ethics. It is the creation of reasonable standards and procedures for making ethical decisions. On the other hand, virtue ethics is a branch of ethics developed primarily by Aristotle and other ancient Greek thinkers that emphasises the role of an individual’s character and virtues in determining the rightness of an action, as opposed to approaches that emphasise duties or rules or the consequences of actions. remember 2 Deals with the moral (good) and immoral (bad) aspects of human behaviour, 2 Is a set of principles or generally accepted guidelines for what is and is not acceptable behaviour. Every day, we make decisions. Every morning, moral issues greet us; they confront us individually, at school or in our daily lives. Dealing with moral issues is sometimes challenging. What questions should we ask and how should we think about an ethical issue? What factors should we take into account? This will bring us to steps in ethical decision making. V Are you the type of person who always tries to do the right thing? How do you know what is the “right thing” to do? 8 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Steps in Ethical Decision Making How do people try to solve ethical issues by making the right decisions or choices? The answer lies in ethical decision making methods. There are five simple and inseparable steps to solving an ethical problem. 1. Identify the central ethical problem: The first step is to undertake research, investigation, and study until the whole problem is understood. 2. Identify stakeholders and their interests: Determine who will be affected by the decisions made. This can be anyone who is affected by the problem and is involved in the outcome of the problem. 3. Find a possible solution to the dilemma: This step is to develop and solve the entire set of alternatives. The information gathered will be used to develop an alternative course of action. 4. Evaluate each solution:Weigh the strengths and weaknesses of each option and select the alternative with the most strengths and weaknesses. 5. Select and justify the solution that best solves the dilemma:This step makes a selection. You need to choose the best option. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 9 Activity 3 Personal research and Group work. a Identify certain ethical problems in your area or locality and discuss in group on how to apply the five steps in ethical decision making. Virtue ethics Rather than focusing on following rules, the emphasis in virtue ethics is on developing oneself as a good person. For example, suppose you were given the opportunity to donate to a charity. Donating, according to virtue ethicists, is the type of action that a virtuous person would take. Another example is deciding whether to lie or tell the truth; virtue ethicists ask whether they want to be honest or dishonest. Virtue ethicists’ value being a person who is honest, trustworthy, and generous, as well as other virtues that leads to a good life, over one’s ethical duty or obligations. Activity 4 Think pair activity. a Do you think of yourself as a “good person”? How do you intend to demonstrate in your area or community? Discuss your concept with your partner. 1.2. The qualities and principles of virtue ethics 10 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Define about moral virtues; 1 Explain what honesty is; 1 Describe the importance of honesty; 1 Behave honestly towards friends, teachers and other people; What do you understand about Moral virtues? It is a known fact that humans enjoy virtue. Virtue, both civic and moral, is the path that leads to the greatest happiness for humans. This will lead us to a discussion of the virtue ethics principles and qualities. Thus, Virtue Ethics can be divided into two categories: moral virtues and civic virtues. Let us first talk about moral virtues and the dispositions that go with them. Moral virtues:refers to behaviours that allow a person to live reasonably in his or her community, region, or world. Moral virtues are dispositions that allow a person to live in accordance with their values. As a result, citizen dispositions conducive to the healthy functioning of our community at large include the following: C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 11 1.2.1. Honesty Figure 1.2. Returning the Lost Wallet to the Owner. V Individually develop your own definition of honesty and share it with your partner. Story telling Truth, Falsehood, Water, and Fire were travelling together and came upon four heads of cattle. They decided to split the cattle evenly and each takes an equal share. But Falsehood was greedy and told Water that Fire was going to burn his land and steal his cattle. Water believed him and jumped on Fire and put him out. Falsehood tricked Truth into believing that Water was going to steal their cattle so they took them to the top of a hill for Water cannot run uphill. 12 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Falsehood laughed that he had tricked everyone and Truth, realising Falsehood had lied, began to fight him for the cattle. They called Wind to determine who the cattle belongs to, but Wind could not determine who the cattle belongs to. Activity 5 a What did you understand from the above African fable story? Describe a falsehood character for its dishonesty and what do you suggest for a falsehood? What is wrong with the water and the wind, provide appro- priate justification? LBeing truthful in what you say and do is what honesty entails. Honesty is a moral quality that entails positive and virtuous charac- teristics such as being truthful, trustworthy, loyal, fair, and sincere. Honesty is defined as the behaviour and attitude of not telling or accepting lies. It is the practice of not stealing or cheating. Be- ing honest means being loyal to one’s fellow, one’s responsibility, and one’s country. At home, with our friends, in our community, at work, and at any other time in our lives, we must all be honest. Honesty is always admired in the family, among friends, in civ- il society, and throughout the world. Everyone respects someone who is truthful. Being regarded as an honest person by society is one of the best compliments a person can receive in his or her en- tire life. In today’s society, a lack of honesty is a way for disaster. Individuals with public responsibility have been observed abusing public property on occasion. This is dishonesty. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 13 All of these are not characteristics of responsible citizens. Corrup- tion not only leads to the mismanagement and abuse of resources, but it also has an impact on people’s minds. As a result, as respon- sible citizens, we must all fight dishonest and corrupt behaviour. These are detrimental to progress and development. Figure 1.3. ‘No to Corruption’. Activity 6 Group discussion, scenarios and individual activity. a What is the significance of honesty? Discuss it as a group and then present it to your representatives. a Consider times when you were honest or dishonest at home, school, or in the community and share your experience or results of being honest and dishonest with your partner. a What do you think of the consequences of dishonesty? 14 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 1.2.2. Courage At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Explain what courage is; 1 Describe the importance of being courageous; 1Act courageously in individual or public issues. Figure 1.4. Athlete Tirunesh Dibaba and Kenenisa Bekele What do you understand about courage? What do you think is the benefit of being courageous? What are some ways you can show courage. Courage is the attitude of confronting and dealing with what is perceived to be difficult or painful rather than avoiding it; it is a quality of being fearless or brave. It means trying again and again until you succeed. It is the determination to work hard despite any odds or obstacles that may exist. Our lives are filled with difficulty. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 15 Only consistent efforts can lead to life success. It is to insist and be firm in getting something done and not to give up. Nobody can succeed in life unless they have the courage. There is no shortcut to success. A courageous person never loses heart despite failing once or twice. For example, if Thomas Edison, the American in- ventor who invented the electric light bulb, had given up after fail- ing many times, this marvellous invention might not have been a possibility as early as 1879. All great men’s lives were filled with difficulties and sufferings. They become great and noble as a result of their battles and victories. We must try again and again until we achieve our goal. As a result, it is said that courage is the key to all success. Case study Scotland’s king, Robert Bruce, fought against the English for his country’s freedom. Unfortunately, he was defeated over and over again. But he didn’t give up. He went to a cave and pondered the fate of his countryman. Suddenly, he discovered a spider attempt- ing, again and again, to climb up the wail using his own made net. After several attempts, the spider finally succeeds in climbing the wall. Seeing that the English were determined to fight, they jumped over them. It was on his seventh attempt that he was successful. Activity 8 a Form groups and talk about what you learned from Robert Bruce and the spider in the case study. The class should hear from the group lead- ers about their ideas. 16 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Activity 7 a Students! Work in small groups to role play situations in which a per- son shows courage. Apart from the teacher’s choice, you can also rely on the following scenarios. 2 You are at school and one of your friends is saying unkind things about someone you know. 2 You see someone at the park who is littering. 1.2.3. Compassion At the end of thissection, you will be able to: 1 Explain what compassion is; 1 Describe the importance of compassion; 1Act compassionately towards others. What do you understand about compassion? Mention the benefits of being compassionate? Figure 1.5. Showing compassion to others C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 17 Compassion is an empathic understanding of another person’s feel- ings, accompanied by unselfishness or a desire to act on that per- son’s behalf. Compassion is the ability to empathise with others and care about their well-being, and it is thus an essential char- acteristic of citizens in a society dedicated to the common good. For example, our friends may require words of encouragement or appreciation, someone may require the gift of being listened to, or someone may simply require to be understood. People who are compassionate in spirit are willing to appreciate those with whom they may disagree on some issues; we can show compassion in a variety of ways. There would be far less hunger, conflict, home- lessness, and unhappiness if we showed more compassion to one another and to our community. Case study The Two Sisters Two sisters lived in the woods. The younger one went to draw wa- ter from the spring one day and was met by a poor old woman who asked for a drink of water. The younger sister kindly gave the old woman a drink. The older sister also went to draw water from the spring and was met by a beautiful but thirsty princess who asked for a drink of water. The older sister refused and told the princess to fetch her own water. 18 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Activity 9 a What did you learn from the above case study? Which sister showed compassion? Which one is not? Discuss in a group and present it to your class. Activity 10 Role play scenarios a Students, you may choose one of the following scenarios and role play it in your class at your choice. 2 You got into an argument with a friend for the fifth time this week because she wants to borrow your phone charger! Play out a sce- nario in which you handle the situation compassionately rather than angrily. 2 Your brother is having a bad day and is shouting at you and the rest of the people in your house. Act out a scenario in which you show compassion to your brother instead of yelling at him. 1.2.4. Generosity Figure 1.6. Sharing what we have with others C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 19 At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Explain what generosity is; 1 Describe the importance of generosity; 1 Demonstrate being generous to others; 1 Appreciate the importance or benefit of generosity. How do you explain generosity Generosity is defined as a moral disposition to expend time, effort, and resources for the benefit of others. The virtuous citizen is gen- erous to others and the community as a whole. It is the quality of being kind and understanding, as well as the willingness to give others valuable things that is frequently defined as an act of self- lessness. Doing good deeds with good intentions will result in positive out- comes. Being generous can make people feel good because they know they have made someone happy. Generosity is a natural con- fidence booster as well as a natural repellent of self-hatred. It also fosters social connections and strengthens relationships. When we give to others, we not only bring them closer to us, but we also bring ourselves closer to them. This is due to the fact that being generous and kind encourages us to see others in a more positive light and fosters a sense of community, a sense of interconnected- ness. 20 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Activity 11 Think pair and role play. a In pairs, discuss the importance of generosity. a Form groups and try to demonstrate generosity in your class through role play. 1.2.5. Fairness At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Define what fairness is; 1 Analyse the concept of fairness; 1 Apply fairness while dealing with others. What do you consider to be fairness? Discuss this issue in the classroom LI treat everyone fairly and equally, giving everyone the same chance and applying the same rules to everyone. Fairness entails treating people fairly and not allowing your per- sonal feelings to influence your decisions about others. Fairness is frequently defined as a method of evaluatingpeople or situations that is free of bias. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 21 It means that everyone in a group has a chance to benefit. For example, if someone offers a reward for finishing a task, it is fair if everyone has equal ability and time to finish the task and thus earns the reward. It is not fair if the reward is only given based on a Figure 1.7. Symbol of person’s characteristics or the reward Fairness giver’s opinion of them. It seeks to es- tablish an equitable method of dealing with decisions that have an impact on others. Fairness has also been used to refer to the ability to make judgments that are concrete and specific to a particular case rather than being overly general. We must recognize that being fair does not always imply treating ev- eryone the same way in every situation. remember In short, fairness requires that we: 2 Treat all people equitably based on their merits and abilities; 2 Handle all essentially similar situations similarly and consistently; 2 Base all decisions on appropriate criteria, free of undue favouritism or prejudice. 22 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Activity 12 Individual activity and Role play scenario a What are some ways we can demonstrate fairness at our school? Dis- cuss in pairs. a Write down various “crimes” on slips of paper, such as cheating on a test, disobeying a teacher, and stealing a cookie from the cafeteria. Allow the students to act out a scene in which the “criminal” selects a crime from a hat and the “jury” (the class) decides his sentence. How severe should the punishment be for each crime? Should some crimes be punished more harshly than others? Discuss the fairness of the jury’s decision on punishments (class). 1.2.6. Self-Discipline: Figure 1.8. Students showing self-discipline in the classroom C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 23 At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Define self-discipline; 1 Identify the importance of self-discipline; 1 Practice the quality of self-discipline. What exactly is self-discipline? How do you demonstrate self-discipline in your home, class, and community? Self-discipline entails acting and behaving in accordance with cer- tain acceptable standards. There are some rules and regulations that must be followed in all situations. These rules and regulations aid in directing our actions. As a result, we should be able to follow these rules and standards in our daily activities. When we do this freely and on our own initiative, we are said to be self-disciplined. That is, we perform the acts in the absence of any external controls or impositions. For example, denying oneself an extravagant plea- sure in order to accomplish a more demanding charitable deed is a display of self-discipline. Thus, self-discipline arises from within us without being forced or controlled by outside expectations, and we believe that the be- haviour is good. Self-discipline enables you to stay focused on your objectives. It allows you to maintain control over yourself and your reaction to any situation. 24 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Activity 13 Group discussion. a Discuss the significance of self-discipline. a Discuss the consequences of a lack of self-discipline and reflect it to the class. 1.2.7. Prudence At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Explain what prudence is; 1 Describe the importance of prudence; 1 Practice the quality of prudence. What do you know about prudence? C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 25 Figure 1.9. Groups of people who are engaged in long and short term planning L“I act carefully and cautiously, looking to avoid unnecessary risks and planning with the future in mind.” Prudence is the ability to make sound decisions in order to avoid danger or risk. It is an act of care, caution, and good judgement, as well as foresight. It entails exercising caution in your decisions and pausing to reflect before acting. When you are prudent, you avoid unnecessary risks and do not say or do things that you may later regret. It is also known as prudent wisdom, practical wisdom, and practical reason. It is the ability to objectively examine the po- tential consequences of your actions and control yourself based on that examination. Prudence entails both long-term and short-term goal-oriented planning. 26 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k remember A prudent person is someone who: 2 Take the time to think before making a decision. 2 Asks within her or him, “What is the right and kind thing to do?” 2 Recognizes and learns from past mistakes. Activity 14 Self-check exercise. Copy the following table on your exercise book and workout on the following prudence activities through a thick () mark. Ve r y Well Needs Prudence Well work I think before acting when faced with a moral 1 dilemma 2 I reflect on past mistakes before acting. 3 I keep my promises. I respect learning and the learning of others 4 and I am open to new ideas. I say I am sorry and try to make up for past 5 mistakes. 6 I think of others when making decisions. Activity 15 a Students, with the help of your teacher, you will role play various sce- narios in which you will practice making wise and prudent decisions. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 27 1.2.8. Civic virtues: At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Explain what civic virtue is; 1 Describe the different manifestations of civic virtue; 1 Practice different civic virtues in the class. What do you understand about civic virtue? What are the manifestations of civic virtue? A civic virtue is a reasoned devotion or commitment that all citi- zens of a given state are expected to discharge or fulfil. It is pro- foundly applied or practised if and only if citizens and students persistently internalised the aforementioned and other moral vir- tues, thereby incorporating them into their behaviour or conduct. It refers to citizens actively participating in democracy for the private as well as the public good. A citizen’s generosity is measured by the extent to which he or she is willing to work for the benefit of both individuals and society as a whole. The following are some examples of civic virtues: 28 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 1.Paying Fair Taxes V What do you consider to be a fair tax? In addition to the other civ- ic dispositions mentioned above, paying fair taxes as a member of society is one of the responsibilities and obligations of a good citi- Picture 1.10. Cash register machine zen. Paying taxes allows the government to carry out its functions. As a result, every member of society must contribute to the government’s support. Tax evasion is the major problem of var- ious countries. If a country is to proceed with its development, all citizens with income need to pay the right amount of tax. The con- tribution must be proportional to their respective income as much as possible. In other words, the more money one earns, the more taxes he or she must pay. Beside tax evasion, contraband is another problem that affects the economy of the country. It is an attempt to bring in or take out of the country commodities without paying the required taxes to the government. Activity 16 Group discussion a What do you believe is the advantage of paying a fair tax? a What are the consequences of failing to pay fair taxes? C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 29 2. Staying informed: Figure 1.11. Bieng informed through reading newspaper. It entails keeping up with current events by reading newspapers, listening to the radio, and watching television. This would inform citizens about what the government is doing and allow them to make informed decisions. Citizens and students, for example, must evaluate and be informed about social, economic, and political is- sues in their communities, regions, and country level. As a result, they are better able to make informed decisions. This could also assist citizens in carrying out their responsibilities effectively. It would also assist citizens in understanding what they are expected to do. 30 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 3. Participating in public government: Picture 1.12. Individuals who are queuing for election. You are already aware that in a democracy, political power is vest- ed in the people. As a result, it necessitates citizens’ active partici- pation in their own affairs. Participation entails being involved in a variety of affairs at various levels and situations. This can occur at the local, regional, and national levels. Some of the ways in which you may participate include the following: L Attending community meetings; L Debating on issues of major concern; L Becoming a member of association or clubs; L Joining campaigns and civic societies; L Voting in elections; L Reading and writing about issues; L Serving in the defence force, and in other institutions. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 31 Activity 17 a Dear students, with the help of your teacher, you will raise a specific debatable issue in your area and hold debates among various groups. 1.3. Importance of virtue ethics At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Identify the importance of virtue Ethics; 1 Analyse the importance of virtue ethics; 1 Appreciate the importance of virtue ethics to individu- als’ life and society’s well beings What do you think is the importance of virtue Ethics? To educate a man in mind and not in morals is to educate a men- ace to society. _Theodore Roosevelt V What do you learn from this proverb and do you agree with this proverb why and why not? 32 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Virtue ethics is critical for both individuals and societies. It instils life’s ideals and virtues. The following are some of the reasons why virtue ethics is important: It helps one to distinguish between right and wrong: Individ- uals’ social thinking is influenced by virtue ethics, which teaches them to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong. Vir- tue ethics is a basic requirement in today’s world, where moral values are rapidly deteriorating. Virtue ethics is important because it teaches values such as diversity, tolerance, mutual respect, and pluralism. Enables to become responsible and contributing members in the society: virtue ethics is a process of assisting children in devel- oping the virtues or moral habits that will enable them to live good lives as individuals while also becoming productive and respon- sible members of their communities. Accordingly, virtue ethics should benefit not only students as individuals, but also the social cohesion of a community. It helps in finding out the true purpose of life: There can be no future human civilization if this value is not taught to students, we as a society rely on one another to survive. Morals such as respect, love, compassion, kindness, forgiveness, and honesty aid in instill- ing this essential value in citizens from a young age C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 33 It also helps in building a positive approach to things: An effec- tive Virtue ethics would help learners develop a positive attitude towards difficult situations and boost their self-esteem. It assists them in discovering their life’s purpose, motivations, and goals, and it inspires them to devote themselves to the cause of social well-being. It helps to eliminate problems of social evils from one’s life:In the process of eradicating social evils such as gender discrimi- nation, oppression, violence, racial discrimination, and violence against minorities, virtue ethics is humanity’s only hope. In order to create a better tomorrow and ensure the continuation of overall development, students must be taught virtue ethics. Activity 18 Group Discussion a Discuss the importance of virtue ethics in a group setting by using relevant examples. A representative from the group will make a pre- sentation to the class. 1.4. Virtue ethics in daily life At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Apply virtue ethics in daily life. 34 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k What do you think the role of virtue ethics is in everyday life? You were introduced to the various virtues and principles of virtue ethics in previous lessons. These are positive characteristics such as honesty, compassion, truthfulness, fairness, prudence, generosity, self-discipline, and so on. Moral virtues are the worthy principles that one follows to distinguish between what is right and what is wrong. These virtues are regarded as valuable in the development of a person’s character. Ethiopia’s future is in the hands of students. Our country’s future is dependent on the moral values instilled in them during their school years. As a result, this lesson is a place where you connect your previous learning in class with the outside world (i.e. extracurricu- lar activities, at your home and in the community). Different activ- ities, including cases and follow-up scenarios, will be provided to ensure that the lesson is completed properly. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 35 Case study: Abebech Gobena Abebech Gobena is the found- er of Ethiopia’s first orphan- age. She picks up a baby and brings her home on her jour- ney to Wollo province. She then brought home a second baby, who was lying next to his dead father. She brought home 21 children in one year. This simple act of kindness Picture 1.13. Abebech Gobena, “Africa’s Mother Teresa”,Founder of grew. She was bringing home Ethiopia’s Oldest Orphanage more children and raising them with her own money. The children quickly grew to 200, and in 1988 she was granted permission to raise them as orphans. Her unusual actions have resulted in the establishment of six branches of the Abebech Gobena Children’s Care and Development organi- sation, which now serves over 12,000 children. When asked about her commitment, she stated, “Commitment is everything to me.” To begin, the first thing I did was fully commit myself. Without commitment, my vision would have remained a pipe dream. I had no idea how to proceed, but I was certain that the only way forward was for me to work hard with my children in order to become self-sufficient. 36 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k I sold all of my gold ornaments during those six years. I tore all of my dresses and renewed them to fit the children. I didn’t have a sewing machine back then. I was with them 24 hours a day, seven days a week.” (Vol. 2 of Making a Difference for Population and Development: Leaders in Action) Activity 19 Group Discussion a Form groups and talk about what you learned from Abebech Gobe- na’s case study. In your discussion, list important virtues from the case study and reflect on them in front of the class. Figure 1.14: Students are practising virtue through donating blood, participating in environmental protection and keeping their hygiene in the school compound. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 37 Activity 20 Role Play Scenarios. a Hello, students, you act out various scenarios in which you practice virtues such as compassion, generosity, and self-discipline in various clubs, at home, and in the community. The teacher will assist you in developing those scenarios. Unit summary This unit introduced you to some of the key concepts associated with the study of Virtue ethics and Ethics. It also allows you to capture the most important key principles and virtue ethics qual- ities. If students are fully acquainted with virtue ethics qualities and principles such as honesty, courage, fairness, compassion, and generosity, they will be decisive for the well being of the indi- vidual and the society. Furthermore, we discussed the significance of virtue ethics from various perspectives. Some of the benefits of virtues ethics include becoming a responsible and contributing member of society and developing a positive attitude. Finally, you examined how you intend to apply virtue ethics in your daily life by examining various cases and activities. Hopefully, you now un- derstand the significance of virtue ethics and are aware of some of the ways in which virtue ethics principles and qualities are used and applied.. 38 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Glossary Compassion: is the ability to understand or feel what another person is going through from within their own frame of refer- ence, or the ability to put oneself in another’s shoes. Courage: is the attitude of confronting and dealing with what is perceived to be difficult or painful rather than withdrawing from it. Ethics:is a field of study which is concerned with what is good or bad, right or wrong actions. Fairness: is frequently defined as a method of evaluating people or situations that is free of bias. Generosity:is the moral disposition to expend time, effort, and re- sources for the benefit of others. Honesty: is defined as the practice of not telling or accepting lies, as well as being truthful or accurate in one’s actions. Prudence: is a type of practical reasoning, the ability to objective- ly examine the potential consequences of your actions and control yourself based on that examination. Self-Discipline: is the ability to behave and work in a controlled manner, which includes adhering to specific rules or standards. Virtue ethics:offers an account of right and wrong based on what a ‘virtuous agent’ would do. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 39 Unit Review Questions Do these review exercises in your exercise book Part I: True or False Items 1. Human beings have the same level of virtues and characters. 2. Virtue ethics qualities are important in creating a positive attitude. 3. The best policy is honesty, which is the habit of telling the truth. 4. Fairness means everyone receives and shares exactly the same thing. 5. To stand up and give a speech in front of the class requires courage. Part II: Multiple Choices Questions 1. Which one of the following is not a way of participating in public government? A. Becoming a member of associations or clubs. B. Debate on issues of importance and concern. C. Showing apathy to issues of prime concern D. Reading and writing about issues 40 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 2.______evaluates action in terms of virtues or good character one possesses. A. Vices C. Ethics B. Virtue ethics D. All are correct answers 3.Among the following, which one is the consequence of dishon- esty? A. Results in respect among friends and the community. B. Erodes trust among friends and the community. C. An honest person earns a good status among the community. D. It is one of the best compliments a person can receive. 4.Which one of the following is not an example of showing com- passion? A. Helping someone in pain B. Leaving a form of gift C. Understanding another personal feeling D. Expressing appreciation to another person 5. Which one of the following is different from the others? A. Paying fair tax C. Self-discipline B. Being informed D. Participation in government C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 41 Part III: Matching: Match qualities of virtue ethics under col- umn ‘A’ with the concept under column ‘B’ No “A” “B” Allows the government to carry out 1 Self-discipline A its functions Evolves behaving in accordance with 2 Courage B certain acceptable standards. It is the ability to objectively exam- 3 Paying fair Tax C ine the potential consequences of your actions It is the determination to work hard 4 Prudence D despite any odds or obstacles that may exist. Part III: Fill in the blank space with the correct answers. 1._______ is a reasoned devotion or commitment expected to be discharged or fulfilled by all citizens of a given state. 2._______ is the disposition to expend time, effort, and resources in a moral context for the benefit of others 42 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Part IV: Give Short answers for the following questions. 1.Write the importance of generosity for oneself, friends, and the community? 2. Explain the importance of qualities and principles of virtue ethics? 3. Describe the ways in which you can demonstrate courage in your daily life. 4. Discuss the ways in which you can demonstrate qualities of vir- tue Ethics in your daily life. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 43 UNIT 2 state and Government Unit Description This unit will teach you about the state and its government. This will assist you in comprehending state structure, government systems, and the relationship and differences between the state and the government. You will also deal with the most contentious relationship between state and government, in which the former includes the latter. Furthermore, you will learn about various types of governments in Ethiopia, as well as their strengths and weaknesses. Keywords Federal, Government, President Prime minister, State Unitary. 44 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Learning Outcomes: Lessons: At the end of this unit, learners will be able to ³ Identify the different structures of 2.1 State structures state; 2.2 Systems of government ³ Describe the different system of 2.3 The relationship and difference government; between state and government ³ Realize the relationship and 2.4 Forms of government in difference between state and Ethiopia government; 2.5 The strengths and limitations ³ Evaluate the forms of of different forms of governments in Ethiopia; governments in Ethiopia ³ Discuss strengths and limitations of different forms of governments in Ethiopia. 2.1 State structures At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Define State Structure; 1 Differentiate features of state structures; 1 Appreciate advantages and disadvantages of state struc- tures. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 45 What does state structure mean? In this section, you will learn about the various state structures. The knowledge you gained about states in grade 7 will serve you as a foundation for understanding different state structures remember 2 The distribution of power among the constituent parts of a state is referred to as state structure. It is the state’s organizational form, or the distribution of power among agencies. The concept of state structure is concerned with whether power is constitutionally devolved to lower administrative units or monopolized centrally by national governments. This means for example, in Ethiopia regional governments have constitutionally devolved powers and functions, whereas Kenya has centralized everything to the national government. Countries around the world use various forms of state structure for a variety of reasons. V Please identify different state structures in the world? There are three types of state structures in the world: unitary, federal, and confederal. 46 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k The Federal and Unitary systems are more common throughout the world, whereas the confederal system is not. In all cases, no structure is inherently democratic or undemocratic. Being federal is not a guarantee of being democratic, and being unitary does not automatically place a country under an undemocratic system. There are unitary states that have more democracy than federal states, and vice versa. Democratization is dependent on incumbent governments’ commitment and readiness in their respective countries. Let us go over the specifics under each subtitle. 2.1.1 Unitary state structure 2.1.1.1 Definition of unitary state structure remember 2 The unitary state is a type of state structure character- ized by power centralization. It is a type of state structure in which a single power, known as the central govern- ment, controls all aspects of government. Case study Assume that there is a ‘Z’ family in Ethiopia. Everything in the family is controlled by the father, and even adolescent children cannot make decisions. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 47 They are afraid to communicate with their father and expect orders from him. He is also unwilling to share power his spouse and refuses to listen to his adolescent children. Every statement is implemented from father to son. When his friends ask him why he is monopolizing power in this way, he says it is to reduce conflict of authority and to make better use of resources and time. Activity 1 a What kind of power exercise do you notice in the family? Is it concen- trated or shared? In fact, a unitary state is a set of political arrangements in which all executive, legislative, and judicial powers are concentrated at the center. It may involve horizontal separation of powers, i.e. the separation of executive, legislative, and judicial powers within a political unit. It will not, however, allow for vertical power separation between a political unit and its subunits. A unitary state may delegate such powers to a subordinate unit, but it does not allow for the division of powers. The fact that the delegation is not based on law, but on the will of the central state. Nonetheless, the unitary state structure is a widely used state structure around the world. 48 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Countries with homogeneous societies prefer unitary state structures because they are less tolerant of diversity. China, Sri Lanka, the United Kingdom, France, Finland, Italy, Kenya, South Africa, Djibouti, and others are examples of unitary states figure 2.1:-the down flow of power from central government to lower units t is better to notice the features of the unitary state structure in order to better understand it. The primary characteristics of a unitary state structure are as follows: L Sovereignty is exclusively lies within the central state. L Legislative bodies of sub-units are subordinate to the legislative body of the center C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 49 L Territorial sub-units are subordinated to the center and cannot work autonomously. L The centre is legally supreme over regional or local territories and with unrestricted power. Countries do not adopt a state structure at random. Hence, there are several reasons for adopting a unitary state structure, including structural simplicity, ensuring equitable resource distribution among constituents, administrative effectiveness, and avoiding duplication of institutional services and the like. 2.1.1.2 Potential advantages and disadvantages of unitary state structure. As previously stated, the most common state structure is the unitary state structure. This is unavoidably due to its merits. There are advantages and disadvantages in adopting unitary state structure. The advantages of Unitary state structures L Provides uniformity of administration L Equal access to public service L Avoids the conflict of authority that might happen due to the division of power between the center and its territorial units. The disadvantages Unitary state structure 50 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Though the unitary state structure is used by the majority of states around the world, it has some limitations in practice. Some of the limitations are as follows: L Concentration of Power L Miss use of power L None recognition of local diversities Make a copy of this table on your exercise book. Form a group to discuss and fill in the blanks in the table with what you’ve learned. Leaders of groups should present their ideas to the class for discussion. Make a copy of this table on your exercise book. Form a group to discuss and fill in the blanks in the table with what you’ve learned. Leaders of groups should present their ideas to the class for discussion. Features of unitary advantages of unitary disadvantages of system system unitary system Sovereignty lies The uniformity of ad- Concentration of 1 within the central ministration power government 2 3 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 51 2.1.2 Federal state structure V What is federalism? Which state structure do you think our country follows? remember 2 Federalism is a state structure that has at least tw levels of government: the central level and the lower level, which includes the territorial entities into which the country is divided. Regions in Ethiopia, for example, states in the United States, and provinces in Australia Case study In contrast to the family administration system seen in family ‘Z’ in the previous case study, family ‘Y’ is another Ethiopian family. They have their own set of written rules and regulations for the family. As a result, the powers and functions of father, mother, and children are clearly stated. They are not expecting orders from each other or a downward flow of orders, but the rules and regulations dictate their every action. No one in the family is overburdened by their responsibilities. Children are even being given powers and functions Activity 2 a What type of family administration do you see in family ‘Y’? Is power shared or monopolized? How does it compare to the previous case study with family ‘Z’? 52 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Federalism is a type of state structure that has at least two levels of government: the central level and the lower level, which includes the territorial entities that make up the country. Ethiopian regions, for example, are comparable to states in the United States and provinces in Australia. In relation to issues that are important to everyone, the central level of government governs the entire country. Defense, foreign policy, citizenship, macroeconomic policy, and national infrastructure such as ports and airports are typically governed by the federal government. The regional level of government has authority over certain types of policy and legislation, which are usually of immediate concern to its own people. As a result, federalism allows different groups to share power over common interests. It allows different groups of people in different parts of the country to enjoy diversity. Thus, territorially large countries with diverse societies prefer federalism. Except for China, the majority of large countries use a federal state structure. As a result, federalism accommodates diversity through power division and ensuring minorities’ self-government. Nevertheless, federalism is not a panacea in and of itself. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 53 Activity 3 Group discussion a Articles 51 and 52 of the FDRE constitution should be consulted. What does it clarify? a What are the authorities of regional governments? What role does the federal government play in the powers and functions listed in Article 52? The existence of written constitutions becomes necessary for the federal political system to function. First, the federal relationship must be established through a permanent covenant of union, which is usually found in a written constitution outlining how power is divided or shared. Article 51 of the FDRE constitution, for example, lists the federal government’s powers and functions. The federal government of Ethiopia owns the majority of the powers related to currency, international relations, citizenship, national defense, administration, and utilization of trans-boundary infrastructures and resources. Article 52, on the other hand, discusses the powers and functions of regional governments. It states that “all powers not expressly delegated to the Federal Government alone, or concurrently to the Federal Government and the States, are reserved to the States.” 54 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Along with this, states have the authority to promote self- government, democratic order, the rule of law, and to protect and defend the Federal Constitution. Furthermore, regional states have the authority to enact and enforce the state constitution and other laws, as well as to administer a state police force and maintain public order and peace within the state. In terms of usage, one-third of the world’s population is governed by states with some form of federal structure. The United States, Brazil, Pakistan, Australia, Mexico, Switzerland, Canada, Nigeria, and Ethiopia are among these countries. figure 2.2:-the relation federal and regional states C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 55 Activity 4 Connect the given powers and functions to administrative units (regional governments or federal government).. Administra- Powers and functions tive units Formulating and implement foreign policy; 1 it shall negotiate and ratify international agreements. Establishing and administer a state police force, 2 and to maintain public order and peace within the Regional State A. Government Formulating and execute the country’s financial, 3 monetary and foreign investment policies and strategies. Enacting and executing the state constitution and 4 other laws Formulating and implementing the country’s 5 policies, strategies and plans in respect of overall economic, social and development matters Formulating and executing economic, social and 6 development policies, strategies and plans of the State Enacting laws for the utilization and conservation B Federal government 7 of land and other natural resources, historical sites and objects Establishing and administering national defense 8 and public security forces as well as a federal police force. 9 Determining matters relating to nationality 56 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 2.1.2.1 Advantages of federal state structure V List down the advantages for adopting federal state structure? The advocators of federalism provide the following advantages for adopting federalism. 1. Federalism is the best fit for dealing with ineffective administrations and maintaining complex socioeconomic and political conditions. 2. To match increased population and territorial size- As a country’s territorial size expands, some peripheral areas become inaccessible and difficult to control by the central state. 3. To accommodate diversity - Internally, it is due to a fear that religious and ethnic differences will lead to conflict and externally, about a possible military and economic threat. Disadvantages federal state structure L deficiency of authority over constituent states and individual citizens L unfit for a state without geographic continuity L confusion and conflict of laws L expenses and dalliance due to its duplicated system of legislation and administration C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 57 L affects the of power of legislation at the central unit on subjects that need uniform legislation Copy this table on your exercise book. Form a group to discuss and fill in the blanks in the table with what you’ve learned. Leaders of groups should present their ideas to the class for discussion. Features of federal Advantages of federal Disadvantages of system system federal system Expenses and 1 Sharing of power Growing complexity dalliance 2 3 Case study In one of federal countries in Africa, the federal government directed regional states to depose serving executives by proposing new leaders in their place. All regional presidents, however, rejected the order and kept their cabinets in power. As a result, the federal and regional governments are at odds. The conflict resulted in the removal of regional leaders from power. The prime minister then appointed new regional leaders, who are now working in the country. Without the consent of the people, the newly empowered presidents drafted a new constitution and endorsed it as the law of the land. 58 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Activity 5 a Is there anything that goes against the fundamental principle of federal state structure? a 2. Why did the provincial leaders defy the order and keep their cabi- nets in place? 2.1.3 Confederation (Confederal arrangement ) V What is confederation? Have you ever heard of it? Activity 6 Group discussion a Is the confederation a type of state structure, or is it a type of common- wealth association without state elements? a Mention if any Confederate states exist in the modern world. If not, ask your group members what kinds of Confederations exist in the world. In modern science, claims have been made as to whether a confederation is a type of state or should be considered differently. A confederation is formed when a group of people or nations form an alliance. It allows each member to govern it while voluntarily agreeing to collaborate on common goals. The arrangement is so loose that the component states retain their sovereignty. There is a definite central organ that coordinates the Confederal states’ common activities, but entirely dependent on what the state units are willing to delegate. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 59 Furthermore, nations can choose whether or not to follow the weak central government’s lead. The functioning of the European Union is a good example of this type (EU). As a result, in the modern world, confederation exists as a form of commonwealth association or organization without state elements, as well as a form of government structure. A confederation’s main goals usually include common defense, common postal services and communication links, common commercial practices, and cultural unity measures. Activity 7 Group Work a Among the three state structures discussed above, Ethiopia adopted a federal state structure after 1991. Do you agree on the type of state structure that has been adopted? Do you have a different preference? Justify yourself in all circumstances. figure 2.3:-Confederal state structure 60 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 2.2 Systems of government At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Define the different systems of government; 1 Differentiate systems of government. What is the system of government? You learned about different types of governments in grade seven. In this lesson, you will learn about the various government systems. For the sake of this grade level, there are two types of government systems namely: presidential and parliamentary. remember 2 System government refers to the relationship between the executive and legislative branches of government. According to this, governments can be presidential when the executive and legislative branches are separately elected by the people or parliamentary when the execu- tive is selected from the legislature. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 61 You may be aware that in Ethiopia, when forming a government, electorates vote for individuals to serve in the House of Peoples Representatives (Parliament). The prime minister is chosen from the parliament to lead the country, to whom he or she is accountable. However, in the United States, people vote directly for president, at least through the Electoral College. Furthermore, the president is not directly accountable to the country’s parliament (congress). 2.2.1 Parliamentary system of government remember 2 The parliamentary system of government is a one in which the executive bodies are distinct from and ac- countable to the legislative body. Case study There are 65 households in our kebele that belong to block 13. They are concerned with ensuring the block’s peace, security, and development. The households thoroughly discussed and wrote down guiding rules. Instead of having unorganized engagements, they formed a council of seven people. These seven people elected their chairperson, who is accountable to the council, and the council accountable directly to the residents of Block 13. Everything was decided in discussion with the council by the chairperson. 62 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Activity 8 Group Work a How was the chairperson of block 13 elected? a For whom the chairperson is accountable to? a What kind of power relations do you see between the council, the chairperson, and the households? A cabinet government or prime ministerial system of government is referred to as a parliamentary system of government. It is a type of government in which the party or coalition of parties with the most representation in the legislature (parliament) forms the government. The prime minister or chancellor is appointed by the leader of the party or coalition. The prime minister appoints executive members from parliament. It is a system in which the legislature and the executive work together and the latter is held accountable to the former. Thus, the parliamentary system is one in which the true executive, the prime minister or the head of government, is directly and legally accountable to the legislature. As a result, all ministers should be members of this party. While the nomination of the Prime Minister in Ethiopia adheres to international principles, it takes an unusual approach in nominating executives, who may or may not be members of the parliament. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 63 Article 74/2 states that the Prime Minister shall submit to the House of Peoples’ Representatives nominees for ministerial positions from members of the two Houses or from persons who are not members of either House but have the necessary qualifications. When a majority of the ruling party or parliament loses confidence in the prime minister, he or she may be removed from office. Some of the parliamentarian countries are such as Ethiopia, Denmark, Japan, Malaysia, Sweden, Germany, India, Italy, Pakistan, Botswana, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. The parliamentary system originated in the United Kingdom. figure 2.4:-the formation of parliamentary system of government 64 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Activity 9 Home Work a Please see FDRE constitution articles 71 and 74 to understand the level of power possessed by the head of state (the President) and the head of government (the Prime Minister). Which of them wields real/critical executive power, and which is merely symbolic? Features of Parliamentary System The parliamentary system of government differs from non- parliamentary systems in several ways. The following are some of the main features of the parliamentary system of government: A. Leadership of the prime minister:The real executive authority is held by the prime minister. As a result, he or she is the “true working head of the state.” He or she is the commander-in-chief of the national army and is in charge of the cabinet. B. Nominal head of state: Nominally, the head of state, whether a monarch or a president, has authority. He or she is the state’s ceremonial ruler. In Ethiopia, for example, the head of state opens the joint session of the House of Peoples Representatives and the House of Federation. Furthermore, among the duties of the head of state in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia are receiving and sending diplomats, as well as awarding medals, prizes, and gifts for exceptional performances. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 65 C. Political homogeneity: Parliamentary governments, with the exception of coalition governments, are characterized by political homogeneity. In Ethiopia, the prime minister is the leader of the party with a clear majority in parliament or the popular house. D. Collective responsibility: The prime minister and his or her ministers are members of parliament and have the right to vote. The prime minister brings issues to parliament for decision, making success or failure a collective responsibility. E. The fusion of power: The parliamentary system combines legislative and executive power. Since, the executives are appointed by parliament; they are both legislators and law enforcers. As a result of this, the system lacks power separation. 2.2.2 Presidential systems of government V What does it mean presidential system of government? remember 2 The presidential system of government is a form of government in which the president serves as the head of state and government. The president and legislature are directly elected by the people and answer to them. 66 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Case study Next to block 13 in our kebele as mentioned in the previous case study, there is bloc 14 with households of 75 in numbers. Like also bloc 13, they were concerned to secure peace, security and development in the block. The households discussed thoroughly and wrote for guiding rules. Then they sit together and voted for council members of eight persons to work along with the chairperson. The council was authorized to identify and make some laws in the community. Accordingly, both the council and the chairperson made to be accountable to households of block 14. Activity 10 a How the chairperson of block 14 was elected? For whom he/she is accountable? What kind of power relationship do you see between the council and the chairperson as well as the households? A presidential system, also known as a single executive system, is a type of government in which the executive branch is led by a president. In this country, the head of government and the head of state is the president and, so the head of government is also the head of state in most cases. The executive is separate from the legislature and is led by the head of government. In this system there is separation of power, since the executive is distinct from the legislative branch. Another important feature is that the executive is not accountable to the legislature. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 67 It is customary in the United States and other similar countries to vote for president and Congress at the same time. Both are directly elected by the people and thus accountable to them. Activity 11 a Have you ever watched the live broadcast of the 2020 United States Presidential Election? Have you ever observed a voting system in which the president and members of Congress are elected concurrent- ly? Tell the class about your experience As a result there is no fusion of legislative and executive power in the presidential system. The president is elected directly by the people and is not accountable to the legislature. The executive is constitutionally separated from the legislative branch. As a result, the legislature has no authority over executive ministers. France, the United States, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Kenya are examples of countries that use presidential forms of government. figure 2.5:-presidential form of governmentt 68 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Features of Presidential System The presidential system’s main characteristics are as follows: A. Superior position of president: Because all of the government’s power is concentrated with him/her, the president holds a superior position. The president, who is directly elected by the people for a fixed term, is in charge of the executive. The president is the head of both the government and the state. B. Separation of powers: The presidential form of government is founded on the principle of power separation among the three branches of government. The executive is not accountable to the legislature. The judiciary is also separate from the executive and legislative branches. This ensures the checks and balances principle. C. Process of impeachment: Impeachment is the authority granted to the legislature to vote on the removal of the president. This vote is held in the event that the president is found to have violated his or her oath of office by failing to defend and protect the constitutional government. D. The president has a fixed term of office: Whereas today’s leaders want to stay in power for life, it is best to limit their tenure to a specific year. For example, the United States holds presidential elections every four years, and a president cannot be elected more than twice. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 69 2.3 The Relationship and Difference between State and Government At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Explain the relationship and differences between state and government; 1 Recognize the relationship and differences between state and government ; 1 Distinguish the concept state and government. Pair discussion What is the relationship and differences between the state and the government? Share your ideas with a class- mate who is nearby. State and government are so closely related in political discourse. Hence, they are frequently used interchangeably. However, they are diametrically opposed concepts. Some of the issues concerning state-government relations are listed below. 70 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k L In the absence of government, state cannot exist; L The Montevideo convention defines a state as having four components: population, territory, government, and sovereignty. This implies that the government is one of the four components of the state. L Government is not only one of the elements, but the most important one. Because the state is an abstract entity, and hence all of the collective will of the state are expressed and implemented through government. Government refers to the people, institutions, and rules that govern a country. L Government is responsible for achieving all of a state’s objectives. It accomplishes the state’s goal. As a result, the government is referred to as the “brain of the state.” L The state provides legitimacy to the government, and the government makes the state a reality. Thus, governments, along with other organs, form a state by wielding influence and control through law and coercion. L All people who live in a state are subject to the state’s jurisdiction. However, the government is made up of only a few people. Only a few people make laws, implement laws, and carry out executive and judicial functions. While the state and government are inextricably linked in this way, they also have distinct differences. The distinctions between states and government are exemplified by the following ideas. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 71 A. State is a wider concept than government: As previously stated; the Montevideo Convention lists the four elements of state, one of which is government. This implies that one of the four components of the state is the government. Even though government is the foundation of all other elements of state, it is incorrect to use the terms interchangeably. B. State is abstract while government is concrete: The state is the organization, whereas the government is a specific group of people, the administrative bureaucracy that controls the state apparatus at any given time. Governments are groups of people with certain coercive powers, whereas states are immaterial and nonphysical social objects. As a result, the government appears to be concrete, whereas the state is not. C. Government is intrinsic while state is extrinsic to human beings: When the state is defined organizationally; it is always defined as distinct from the rest of society. There are some stateless societies, such as the sedentary tribal system, that make decisions through implicit negotiations without the use of a specialized state. As a result, the state is extrinsic to humans, which means they can live without it. On the contrary, the government as an organization is inherent in humans because the act of governance exists even in stateless societies such as sedentary tribal systems. As a result, government is inherent in humans. There is no such thing as a human society without a government. 72 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k D. State represents but government materializes political power in a given territory:The state is either a power in and of itself, or it represents power in the territory. Government, on the other hand, refers to specific occupants of the state apparatus who wield power while claiming to represent the state. They then use / materialize the power to act on the state’s behalf. E. The state is almost permanent, where as government is temporary:We have already established that government refers to those in positions of state power. Governments and regimes are transient; they come and go, but the state is relatively eternal. Ethiopia, for example, has existed for far too long. Governments, on the other hand, change from time to time and will continue to change in the future. Copy this table on your exercise book. Then compare state and govern- ment and write down your ideas in the spaces given in the table.n. State Government 1 Changing 2 Sharing of power 3 Narrower 4 Abstract 2.4 Forms of government in Ethiopia C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 73 At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 List down forms of governments in Ethiopia; 1 Discuss features of the forms of government in Ethiopia. Discuss the imperial, derg, and the post 1991 govern- ments in Ethiopia and share your thoughts with a class- mate nearby In this section, you are going to discuss different forms of government in Ethiopia, which is one of the ancient states in the world. The country governed by the different form of governments. Let us see those different governments. A. Monarchical Regimes in Ethiopia The imperial system has existed until the 1974 in the country. The imperial form of government was Monarchical with absolutist and centralized administration. Its was Power was transferred for descendents of the emperor. In line to this, the 1931 constitution of Ethiopia article 4 states that ‘the throne and the crown of the empire shall be transmitted to descendents of the Emperor pursuant to the law of the imperial house’. 74 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k The same constitution indicated that sovereign power is vested in the hands of the Emperor. There was only downward flow of powers from the central king to the provincial vassals. The emperor was the law enforcer, law maker and partly adjudicator. Hence, the emperor had personalized power with unitary state structure. Though the constitution depicts two chambered parliament namely chamber of the Senate (yeheggue Mewossenga Meker beth) and the Chamber of Deputies (yeheggue Memriya Meker beth), law making power was controlled by the emperor. Peoples of the country had subject status, and members are nominated by the emperor to sit in chamber of Senate. B. The military regime in Ethiopia The long persistent feudal system in Ethiopia was ended with coming of the derg regime into the power. The word Derg is the Arabic word to mean committee. It has the following features L Emerged to be military and dictatorial form of government in Ethiopia. L Adopted unitary state structure. L Replaced feudalism and monarchical systems by socialism and presidential systems of government respectively. L Ended ancestral power succession to descents of the emperors. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 75 L The working class became the sovereign power possessor by forming unicameral chambered parliament named as National Shengo. L The president was the head of state and commander –in-chief of the national army. Activity 12 Group discussion a The derg regime was considered as change maker of the long existed political system of the country. Why is it said so? C. The post 1991 Republican form government The Derg was deposed in May 1991. Following that Ethiopia adopted a republican form of government with a parliamentarian system of government since 1991. A republic is a type of government in which a state is ruled by citizens’ representatives. The main tool for practicing republicanism is to hold free, fair, and periodic elections. To that end, series of elections have been held in the country since the change of regime in 1991, despite their limitations. There were there were complains of one party dominance, election rigging and corruptions. 76 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 2.4.1 Strengths and limitations of different forms of government in Ethiopia At the end of this section, you will be able to: 1 Identify the strengths of different forms of government in Ethiopia; 1 Discover the limitations of different forms of govern- ment in Ethiopia.. V Is it possible for a given form of government to be free of limitations? Identify the strengths and limitations of various forms of government in Ethiopia and share your thoughts with a classmate nearby. In this section, you will identify the strengths and limitations of various forms of government in Ethiopia. Governments in Ethiopia, like any other form of governments, have strengths and limitations. Activity 13 Group discussion a Before we begin, try to list the strengths and limitations of the imperial regimes, the derge regime, and the post 1991 government in the coun- try. Then, show it to your classmates. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 77 A. Strengths and limitations of Monarchical system in Ethiopia The monarchical system played an important role in state formation and nation building, which was followed by modernization. It also established a ministerial system in order to form a strong executive in the country. Regardless of government changes, all monarchical systems were unwavering in their commitment to ensuring sovereignty and national unity of the country. We can look at the Adwa victory, which became a symbol of independence for all black peoples around the world and was the result of Ethiopian patriotism. Furthermore, diplomatic successes contributed to the formation of a continental organization and the hosting of the current African Union. As a result, Addis Abeba has become Africa’s capital city. Despite the fact that the constitutional system is still in its infancy, the foundation of a written constitution in 1931 laid a remarkable foundation. However, the process of establishing a state and nation building has not been completed. In most ways, it ignored the diversity of the country’s peoples. The continuation of ancestral power transfer, state religion, and the absence of a party system were among the major limitations of the monarchical system. Activity 14 Group discussion a Please discuss with your colleagues and list additional strengths and limitations of the monarchical system in addition to the ones listed above.. 78 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k B. Strengths and limitations of the military Regime in Ethiopia When the Derg regime succeeded the imperial system, it, like all its predecessors, was fully committed to the sovereignty and national unity, with the motto “Ethiopia First,” claiming the country’s indivisibility. It has maintained the diplomatic ties inherited from the imperial regime, but, with a more emphasis towards the East socialist blocs. Land redistribution to tillers and literacy campaigns were among critical successes. Furthermore, the regime’s successes included the decree of “equality of cultures” of different identity groups and Secularism. However, gross human rights violations, such as ‘Red Terror,’ have resulted in the deaths of a large number of people. Interstate and intrastate wars, as well as a mono-party system, have been discovered to be antithetical to the democratization process. Activity 15 a Please discuss with your colleagues and list additional strengths and limitations of the military regime in addition to the ones listed above. Strengths and limitations of the Post 1991 government The arrival of the EPRDF in 1991 has altered state structure of the country. Regardless of such shifts, issues such as sovereignty and diplomacy remain unaffected. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 79 It has adopted new progressive approaches such as ensuring self- determination, which includes language and cultural rights, as well as political representation and territorial autonomy with unity in diversity of different ethnic groups though they were not genuine in implementations. Infrastructure developments and secularism must be recognized. Despite the fact, the implementation problem of federalism has resulted in heightened extremism followed by conflicts, displacements and the like. Activity 16 a Please discuss with your colleagues and list additional strengths and limitations of the post 1991 government in addition to the ones listed above in. 80 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Unit summary In this unit, we have identified the three types of state structures: unitary, federal, and Confederal and the two systems governments in the world namely presidential and parliamentarian. The relationship and difference between state and government are frequently questioned because they are interconnected; however, they are distinct from one another. State is broader while government is narrower. In Ethiopia, the imperial system was dominated monarchical government, until the derg system replaced it with military and socialist forms of government. The EPRDF led government transformed the political land escape system into a republican federal system however, with big limitations in implementation. It is depicted that, each of these governments in Ethiopia have their own set of strengths and limitations. For instance, the monarchical regime was successful in state formation and international diplomacy though disregarded diversities in the country. The military government was also successful in national unitary and diplomacy though committed violations of human rights. The post 1991 government came to address diversities in the country, which however emerged to be not genuine. C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k 81 Glossary Head of government:is the owner of real political power in the country like prime minister in parliamentary countries Head of state:The of state in a parliamentarian countries are ceremonial head in countries politics such as president, king, queens etc Lower units:The subsidiary level of administrations with their power in federal system and without in a unitary system Public Consent The will of people to recognize the system either by vote or other means State: Is an abstract entity encompassing government, sovereignty, territory and population 82 C it iz e ns h ip E d u c a t io n G ra d e 8 S t u d e nt t e x t b o o k Unite Review Questions Part I: Say True for correct statements and False for incorrect ones. 1. Ethiopia adopted a f

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