A & P 2451K Cisse Spring 2023 Study Guide for Exam 2 PDF

**A & P 2451K, Cisse Spring 2023** **Study Guide for Exam 2** 1. What is the name of the science that studies tissues? Histology. The science that studies cell is called cytology. Inside the cell, there is a gel type of liquid called the cytosol but between cells, the liquid is called...

**A & P 2451K, Cisse Spring 2023** **Study Guide for Exam 2** 1. What is the name of the science that studies tissues? Histology. The science that studies cell is called cytology. Inside the cell, there is a gel type of liquid called the cytosol but between cells, the liquid is called extracellular fluid or interstitial fluid. The two fluids are different. The cytosol is the liquid inside the cell but the cytoplasm includes both the liquid and the organelles. 2. The difference between endoderm (inside layer), mesoderm (middle layer) and ectoderm (top layer) of the embryo. During embryonic development, there are three germ layers that develop: The ectoderm, the mesoderm and the endoderm. Know that both the nervous system and the epidermis came from the ectoderm, the outside layer. The epidermis (top layer) has no blood vessels (avascular) has nerves (innervated) which makes us feel things on our skin. When the epidermis is damaged, there is no bleeding because the epidermis is avascular. Bones are also connective tissues but they come from the mesoderm. 3. Know the difference between the four tissue types (epithelial, connective Muscular and neural. Why is epithelial called so? "Epi" means top and "thelia" means layer, basically, top layer. 4. Know the characteristics of epithelial tissues and what they mean (cellularity, polarity (apical and basal surfaces), avascularity, innervation, attachment to basement membrane and fast regeneration). Cellularity means the cells are next to each other, avascularity means there is no blood vessels. Every epithelial tissue has a basement membrane that is like a glue to attach it to a connective tissue below it. 5. Know the names and function of cell junctions (gap junctions, tight junctions and desmosomes). In epithelia tissues, cells are connected to each other and the connection is called a junction. Gap junction means, there is a hole between the cells that allows them to communicate with each other. Tight junctions are just cells tightly connected to each other. Desmosome are when cells are connected by nails and screws called cells adhesion proteins. 6. In epithelial tissues, you need to know the functions of each type of cells. Which ones do protection, diffusion, absorption and secretion: Cuboidal cells are known for absorption and secretion, that is why they are in most glands. But what is a gland? 7. Pseudo Stratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium have cilia and transitional epithelium are in the bladder. Know that the skin is the biggest organ and the stratified squamous epithelium is the most widespread epithelium. The stratified columnar is very rare. Goblet cells produce mucus from some columnar epithelium but other columnar have microvilli called brush borders, like fingers to increase the surface area in the small intestines. 8. How are epithelial cell classified (simple vs stratified, squamous vs cuboidal vs columnar, pseudo stratified vs transitional) and the location (which organ has which ones) and functions of each (protection, permeability, sensation and their ability to secrete as glands). 9. Non-keratinized epithelium has no keratin and is slippery and resists stress. 10. Know the difference between keratinized and non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium, and between mucous and serous membrane. 11. Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) is the ground substance that improves water retention in connective tissue. 12. Know the difference between endocrine glands and exocrine glands. Endocrine glands secrete hormone in blood and exocrine glands secrete outside or in lumen. Surfaces can be external (examples: sweat, tear glands) or internal (examples: pancreas, salivary glands 13. The structures of glandular tissues (apocrine, merocrine, holocrine, endocrine) and their secretions (serous gland, mucus gland, mixed exocrine gland) 14. Merocrine glands: (eccrine glands) use exocytosis to produce simple sweat. Use stratified cuboidal epithelium. 15. Apocrine glands: secrete sex hormones in the sweat that smell and released under stress, contains lipid droplets, example milk from mammary gland cells. The cells are simple cuboidal epithelium. The top part of the cell is gone with the sweat, which makes it smell. 16. Holocrine glands: sebaceous glands, 17. What are connective tissues (the 3 components of connective tissues) 18. Know the diagrammatic view of the cells and fibers of connective tissue proper: - The 3 fibers (collagen fiber, elastic fiber and reticular fibers) - The 7 cells (fibrocytes, melanocytes, macrophages (free and fixed), adipocytes, mesenchymal cells, mast cells, lymphocytes as well as red blood cells) - Matrix (ground substance mixed with fiber): fluid, gel, solid. 19. Know the difference between loose connective tissue and dense connective tissues (what makes them loose or dense?) 20. Understand that fibroblasts are found in connective tissues and not in epithelial tissues 21. Know the three categories of connective tissues: Fibrous connective tissue, fluid or liquid connective tissue, and supporting connective (Bones and cartilages). 22. The names, cell types, locations and functions of all connective tissues: - **Fluid or liquid connective tissues:** Blood (red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets) and lymph - **Loose connective tissues:** areolar (fibrocytes), adipose (adipocytes) and reticular (fibrocytes). - **Dense connective tissues:** dense **regular** connective tissue (Tendons, ligaments and aponeurosis) and dense **irregular** connective tissue (dermis of the skin that makes leather, capsules around organs) and elastic tissue (which is a type of dense regular connective tissue with more elastic fibers, that is why they look alike). The cells are all fibroblasts. - **Supportive connective tissues**: (cartilage and bones). Their cells look like an eyeball with a cell sitting in a room called lacunae). - **Cartilage:** Three types (**Hyaline, elastic** and **fibrocartilage**). Cells =chondrocytes. The only avascular connective tissue and the ground substance for cartilage is called **chondroitin sulfates**. Collagen fibers are strait in hyaline cartilage and interwoven in fibrocartilage. Elastic cartilage has more elastic fibers). - **Bones:** (Osteocytes), look like tree trunk. 23. Know the name, location and functions of the three types of muscle (Skeletal, smooth, cardiac) 24. What is a neural tissue and what is the function of the nervous tissues 25. What is cancer? 26. Know the four tissue membranes: mucous, serous, cutaneous and synovial. **Chapter 6: Integumentary system** 1. The integumentary system includes skin, hair, nail and associated glands. 2. Dermatology the study of the integumentary system including the skin, hair, nails. The is the largest and heaviest organ in human body, 15% body mass). 3. The name of the most popular cell on the skin, hair and nails are the Keratinocytes. 4. Know the structure of each layer of the skin (epidermis, dermis and hypodermis). What types of tissues are located in each one? 5. What determines skin color? Know the name of the different pigments. 6. Epidermis is stratified squamous epithelial tissue with keratinocytes as its cells. 7. Know the difference between thin (4 layers) skin and thick (5 layers) skin and their locations. Which one is on the entire skin and which one on the palm and the sole of feet. 8. Know the layers of the epidermis: stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosa, stratum lucidum and the stratum corneum (more than 27 layers). Come Let's Get Sun Burn. 9. In Thick skin, there are no hair or oil gland, but sweat glands exist. 10. Know the layers of the dermis: **Papillary layer** (areolar tissue) and **the Reticular layer** (dense irregular connective tissue) 11. Why is the papillary layer called papillary? It has papillae. But do you recognize the papillae on the models? You should. 12. What types of cells do you find in the skin? Know the functions of Dendritic cells, Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, Tactile corpuscles, Lamellar corpuscles, 13. Dendritic cells eat the bacteria, but how? 14. How hair grows and what is making it grow? 15. Know the difference between hair follicle, hair bulb and hair shaft: The follicle is the tube in which the hair grows from and the bulb is the actual paste at the base where hair originates that becomes the hair. The hair shaft is the actual hair you see. 16. In the hair cycle, know the difference between: anagen, catagen, telogen, 17. Know the definitions of alopecia and hirsutism. 18. The word Pilus means hair. Piloerector muscle is the muscle that makes the hair stand. 19. Know the names, locations and functions of: sebaceous gland (oil or sebum), sweat gland, piloerector muscle, hair follicle, Pacinian corpuscle, Tactile corpuscle, hair shaft, hair follicle. 20. What determines fingerprint? The papillary layer of the dermis. 21. Know the definitions of nail body, nail plate, nail root, eponychium and lunule. 22. Know where mitosis happens in the nail **Chapter 7: Bone tissue** 1. Bone is supportive connective tissue. 2. Os (bone) 3. Osseous (bony) 4. Osteogenic cells are osteoprogenitors cells (bone stem cells) 5. Osteoblast (immature bone cells) 6. Osteocytes (mature bone cells) 7. Osteogenesis (bone formation process) 8. Osteoclast (large cells to recycle bones) 9. Osteolysis (bone breaking process) 10. Osteoid (bone matrix (ground substance) made by osteoblast) 11. Osteon (basic unit of bone formed by circles of lamellae with osteocytes) 12. Ossification (replace other tissues with bone, endochondral, intramembranous) 13. Osteoporosis (bone becomes porous, weak) 14. Osteopenia (loss of bone tissue) 15. Endosteum (inside layer of bones) 16. Periosteum (outside layer of bones) In latin "os" is bone. The osseous tissue is made of 2% cells (osteocytes), 2/3 ground substance (hydroxyapatite (calcium mixed with phosphate) and 1/3 protein fiber (collagen). 2%: Cells 66%: Ground substance 32%: Collagen So, the matrix is the mixture of the hydroxyapatite (makes the bone hard) and the collagen fibers (make the bone flexible). The **osteocytes** start early as osteogenic or **osteoprogenitor cells** (stem cells) from the **endostium** (inner layer of the bone), and develop into **osteoblasts** (immature bone cells). It is the osteoblasts that secrete all the **osteoid** (bone matrix, what makes the bone the actual bone) while growing to become older and stronger to become **osteocytes (which maintain bones)**. For the bone to work, it has to have a machinery unit (the osteon). Each osteon is arranged as concentric (in little circles) layers (called lamellae) around a central canal containing blood vessels, with osteocytes laying in little areas called lacunae communication through small canals called **canaliculi**. Between each osteon, there are little incomplete circle called **interstitial lamellae** and the entire bone at the area of compact bone has large circles going around the entire bone called the **circumferential lamellae**. Therefore, we have three types of lamellae: circumferential (large ones), interstitial (between osteon), and concentric (making the actual osteons). There are two types of bone tissues based on structures: compact bones (circumferential lamellae) and spongy bone made of mesh like network called trabeculae which contain the red bone marrow. The entire bone is covered by a layer (**periosteum)** connected to the collagen of the bone, capsules, tendons attaching the bone to a muscle and ligaments attaching bones to bones which helps direct blood, nerve and assists in bone growth. During osteogenesis (bone formation and growth), or ossification (replacement of tissues with bone), bones are build and broken constantly. O**steoclasts (bone breakers)** secrete acids and enzymes to dissolve the bone matrix and release calcium to blood if needed. Because bones need to be strong, of course we have to deposit calcium (calcification) into the matrix. Bone formation can occur two ways: For long bones, **endochondral ossification** starts with hyaline cartilage replaced step by step (7 steps) from the shaft of the bone (diaphysis) to the end (epiphysis) by bone during oppositional growth (long and thick). Between the diaphysis and the epiphysis, the connecting line is called metaphysis, where the actual growth happens. So, the chondrocytes (cells of hyaline cartilage) grow to become **osteocytes**. **Intramembranous ossification (or dermal ossification b/c starts in the skin)** for flat (skull bones) or irregular bones (clavicle or mandible) where each bone start somewhere with its own little immature bone cells, not from cartilage. This one has 5 steps: mesenchymal cells become osteoblasts and secrete osteoid that is mineralized and grow into osteocytes in small pockets called spicules with blood vessels, making it look like spongy bone that is calcified with the osteoblast along with the connective tissues on the surface becoming the periosteum (the outer layer of the bone). We need exercise, hormones, vitamin A, C, K and B12 for bone growth. **Growth hormone** secreted by the pituitary gland (located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone) stimulate the synthesis of both the osteoblasts and bone matrix. **Testosterone** promotes the growth of **muscle**. **Thyroxine** (secreted by the thyroid gland) helps growth hormone to activate bone growth. **Parathyroid hormone (PTH)** is secreted when calcium level is low so that it can stimulate osteoclasts to break the bone to release calcium. **PTH** activates the osteoclasts so the bone tissue is broken down to produce calcium, when the body needs it. So here, breaking is a good thing. **Calcitonin** is secreted when calcium level is too high in the blood so that it can build calcium into bone to keep it away from the blood. Calcitonin does it by stopping the osteoclasts. Both these hormones act on the bone and not directly on each other. That is why the calcitonin (bone growth) and PTH (bone braking) maintain homeostasis. And we know that we know what is homeostasis...... Osteopenia: bones are weaker and thinner Osteoporosis: bones are porous. **Chapter 8 Skeletal System** We will cover Chapter 8 and answer these questions during class 1. Which 2 bones of the pectoral girdle are located in the thoracic area but do not belong to the axial skeleton? Which 3 bones are located in the pelvic girdle but do not belong to the axial skeleton? 2. What is the difference between a sinus and a foramen? 3. Why do children have more bones than adults do? 4. What is the difference between a condyle and a process? 5. What is an alveolus or alveolar process? 6. What is the difference between a sutural bone and a sesamoid bone? 7. Name all the sutures formed by the parietal bone. 8. Which ribs are false but not floating? 9. What is the difference between a canal and a fissure? 10. The sacroiliac joint in located in which girdle? 11. Intertubercular sulcus is located on which bone? 12. Cite 5 differences between the male and female pelvis. 13. What is the difference between a true rib and a false rib? 14. Name one thing that the frontal bone and the mandible have in common in children? 15. What is the name of the passage way of the baby in the pelvis during child birth 16. The lesser and greater trochanters are located on which bone? 17. The mandibular fossa is located on which bone? 18. Which bone has the manubrium? 19. How many styloid processes do you know? Cite them 20. Mastoid process is located on which bone? 21. The tibial tuberosity is located on which bone? 22. The medial malleolus is located on which bone? 23. What is the difference in shape or direction between the spinous process of a typical thoracic vertebra and the spinous process of a lumbar vertebra 24. The navicular bone is located on which group of bones? 25. Why do the bodies of vertebrae get larger as we go inferiorly? 26. What is the difference between the Sella turcica and the hypophyseal fossa? 27. You have a friend complaining about back pain. What explanation can you give about the possible cracking of the annulus fibrosus and the leaking of the nucleus pulposus? 28. Which costal cartilage is a synchondrosis and which ones are synovial?