Chapter 2 - CELLS Anatomy & Physiology PDF

Seeley’s
ESSENTIALS OF
...

Seeley’s
ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy & Physiology Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte Jennifer Regan Andrew Russo See separate PowerPoint slides for all gures and tables pre-inse ed into PowerPoint without notes. © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights rese ed. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or fu her distribution permitted without the prior written consent of  2 Chapter 3 Cell Structures and eir Functions Lecture Outline © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Structure 3 Organelles: specialized structures in cells that pe orm speci c functions Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance that holds organelles Cell membrane: also termed the plasma membrane a structure that encloses the cytoplasm © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Generalized Cell 4 1 Figure 3.1 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Functions of the Cell 5 Smallest units of life Cell metabolism and energy use Synthesis of molecules Communication Reproduction and inheritance © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Membrane 6 e cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the outermost component of a cell. It forms a bounda between material in inside the cell and the outside. Materials inside the cell are intracellular and those outside are extracellular. It acts as a selective barrier. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Membrane Structure 7 e uid-mosaic model is the model used to describe the cell membrane structure. e membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates. Phospholipids form a bilayer. Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and nonpolar. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Phospholipid Structure 8 A phospholipid molecule has a polar head region that is hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail region that is hydrophobic. e polar region is exposed to water around the membrane. e nonpolar region is facing the interior of the membrane. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  e Cell Membrane 9 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.2a  Movement through the Cell 10 Membrane e cell membrane has selective permeability, which allows only ce ain substances to pass in and out of the cell. Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in higher concentrations inside the cell. Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher concentrations outside the cell. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Membrane Passage 11 1 Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass directly through the cell membrane’s phospholipid bilayer. Some substances must pass through transmembrane protein channels, such as Na+ through its channels. e route of transpo through the membrane depends on the size, shape, and charge of the substance. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Membrane Passage 12 2 Some substances require carrier molecules to transpo them across the cell membrane, such as glucose. Some substances require a vesicular transpo across the membrane. e vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for transpo. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Active Transpo and Passive Transpo 13 1 Passive membrane transpo does not require the cell to expend energy. Active membrane transpo does require the cell to expend energy, usually in the form of ATP. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Active Transpo and Passive Transpo 14 2 Passive membrane transpo mechanisms include di usion, osmosis, and facilitated di usion. Active membrane transpo mechanisms include active transpo , seconda active transpo , endocytosis, and exocytosis. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Di usion 15 1 Di usion generally involves movement of substances in a solution down a concentration gradient. A solution is generally composed of two major pa s, solutes and the solvent. Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid or gas, which is called the solvent. Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an area of higher concentration of a solute to an area of lower concentration of that same solute in solution. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Concentration Gradient 16 A concentration gradient is the di erence in the concentration of a solute in a solvent between two points divided by the distance between the two points. e concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the concentration di erence is large and/or the distance is small. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Di usion 17 2 Figure 3.3 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Leak and Gated Channels 18 1 Lipid soluble substances can di use directly through the phospholipid bilayer. Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can di use across the cell membrane only by passing through cell membrane channels. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Leak and Gated Channels 19 2 Two classes of cell membrane channels include leak channels and gated channels. Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass through. Gated channels limit the movement of ions across the membrane by opening and closing. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Di usion through the Cell Membrane 20 Figure 3.4 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Leak and Gated Membrane Channels 21 Figure 3.5 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Osmosis 22 1 Osmosis is the di usion of water (a solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher water concentration to one of lower water concentration. Osmosis exe s a pressure, termed osmotic pressure, which is the force required to prevent movement of water across cell membrane © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Osmotic Pressure and the Cell 23 Osmotic pressure depends on the di erence of solution concentrations inside a cell relative to outside the cell. A cell may be placed in solutions that are either hypotonic, isotonic, or hype onic compared to the cell cytoplasm. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Hypotonic 24 A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes and a higher concentration of water relative to the cytoplasm of the cell. e solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the cell. Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell. If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called lysis. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Isotonic 25 A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the same solute concentrations inside and outside the cell. e cell will neither shrink nor swell. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Hype onic 26 e cytoplasm of a cell in a hype onic solution has a lower solute concentration and higher water concentration than the surrounding solution. Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hype onic solution, resulting in cell shrinkage, or crenation. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Osmosis 27 2 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Red Blood Cell Changes in Di ering 28 Solutions Figure 3.7 © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©David M. Phillips/Science Source  Carrier-Mediated Transpo 29 1 Some water-soluble, electrically charged or large sized pa icles cannot enter or leave through the cell membrane by di usion. ese substances include amino acids, glucose, and some polar molecules produced by the cell. Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane involved in carrier- mediated transpo. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Carrier-Mediated Transpo 30 2 Carrier-mediated transpo mechanisms include facilitated di usion and Active transpo. Facilitated di usion does not require ATP for energy. Active transpo does require ATP for transpo. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Facilitated Di usion 31 1 Facilitated di usion is a carrier-mediated transpo process that moves substances across the cell membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration of that substance. Because movement is with the concentration gradient, metabolic energy in the form of ATP is not required. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Facilitated Di usion 32 2 Figure 3.8 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Active Transpo 33 Active transpo is a carrier-mediated process, requiring ATP, that moves substances across the cell membrane from regions of lower concentration to those of higher concentration against a concentration gradient. Active transpo processes accumulate necessa substances on one side of the cell membrane at concentrations many times greater than those on the other side. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Sodium-Potassium Pump 34 1 A major example of active transpo is the action of the sodium-potassium pump present in cell membranes. e sodium-potassium pump moves Na + out of cells and K+ into cells. e result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells and a higher concentration of K+ inside cells. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Sodium-Potassium Pump 35 2 Figure 3.9 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Seconda Active Transpo 36 1 Seconda active transpo uses the energy provided by a concentration gradient established by the active + transpo of one substance, such as Na to transpo other substances. No additional energy is required above the energy provided by the initial active transpo pump. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Seconda Active Transpo 37 2 In cotranspo , the di using substance moves in the same direction as the initial active transpo ed substance. In counte ranspo , the di using substance moves in a direction opposite to that of the initial active transpo ed substance. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Seconda Active Transpo 38 3 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.10  Endocytosis 39 Endocytosis is a process that that brings materials into cell using vesicles. Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a speci c substance binds to the receptor molecule and is transpo ed into the cell. Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when solid pa icles are ingested. Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed, and they contain liquid rather © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis 40 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.11  Exocytosis 41 1 Exocytosis involves the use of membrane- bound sacs called secreto vesicles that accumulate materials for release from the cell. e vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse, ultimately releasing the material by exocytosis. Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive enzymes. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Exocytosis 42 2 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.12 (b) ©Dr. Birgit H. Satir  General Cell Structure 43 e interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm, which a jelly-like uid that surrounds the organelles. Organelles are specialized structures that pe orm ce ain functions. Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, agella, and microvilli. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Generalized Cell 44 2 Figure 3.1 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Nucleus 45 1 e nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the center of the cell. e nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, which consists of outer and inner membranes with a narrow space between them. e nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Nucleus 46 2 e nuclei of human cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes which consist of DNA and proteins. During most of a cell’s life, the chromosomes are loosely coiled and collectively called chromatin. When a cell prepares to divide, the chromosomes become tightly coiled and are visible when viewed with a microscope. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Nucleus 47 3 Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are di use bodies with no surrounding membrane. that are found within the nucleus ere are usually one to several nucleoli within the nucleus. e subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic organelle, are formed within a nucleolus. ese ribosomal components exit the nucleus through nuclear pores. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cell Nucleus 48 4 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.13 (b,c) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source  Chromosome Structure 49 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.14  Ribosomes 50 Ribosome components are produced in the nucleolus. Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are produced. Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes that are not attached to any other organelle are called free ribosomes. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Ribosome Production 51 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.15  Endoplasmic Reticulum 52 1 e endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm. e rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and is rough due to attached ribosomes. e smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and is a site for lipid synthesis, cellular detoxi cation, and it stores calcium ions in © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Endoplasmic Reticulum 53 2 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.16a  Golgi Apparatus 54 1 e Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi complex, consists of closely packed stacks of cu ed, membrane-bound sacs. It collects, modi es, packages, and distributes proteins and lipids manufactured by the ER. e Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are secreto vesicles, lysosomes, and other vesicles. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Golgi Apparatus 55 2 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.13 (b) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source  Lysosomes 56 Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus. ey contain a variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive systems. Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in order to breakdown materials in the endocytotic vesicles. One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Lysosome Action 57 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.18  Peroxisomes 58 Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell. e enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Mitochondria 59 1 Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small organelles responsible for producing considerable amounts of ATP by aerobic (with O2) metabolism. ey have inner and outer membranes separated by a space. e outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the inner membranes have numerous folds, called cristae, which project into the interior of the mitochondria. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Mitochondria 60 2 e material within the inner membrane is the mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Cells with a large energy requirement have more mitochondria than cells that require less energy. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  A Mitochondrion 61 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.19 (b) ©EM Research Se ices, Newcastle University RF  e Cytoskeleton 62 2 e cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the cell. It consists of protein structures that suppo the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the cell to change shape. ese protein structures are microtubules, micro laments, and intermediate laments. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Microtubules 63 Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein subunits. e microtubules pe orm a variety of roles, including helping to suppo the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell division, and forming essential components of ce ain organelles, such as cilia and agella. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Micro laments 64 Micro laments are small brils formed from protein subunits that structurally suppo the cytoplasm, determining cell shape. Some micro laments are involved with cell movement. Micro laments in muscle cells enable the cells to sho en, or contract. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Intermediate Filaments 65 Intermediate laments are brils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than micro laments. ey provide mechanical suppo to the cell. A speci c type of intermediate lament is keratin, a protein associated with skin cells. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  e Cytoskeleton 66 1 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.20 (b) ©Don Fawcett/Science Source  Centrioles 67 e centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus where microtubule formation occurs. It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of microtubules. e centriole is involved in the process of mitosis. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Centriole 68 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.21 (b) ©Biology Media/Science Source  Cilia 69 Cilia project from the su ace of ce ain cells. ey are responsible for the movement of materials over the top of cells, such as mucus. Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and are composed of microtubules. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Flagella 70 Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are much longer, and they usually occur only one per cell. Sperm cells each have one agellum, which propels the sperm cell. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Microvilli 71 Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane that are suppo ed by micro laments. ey do not actively move as cilia and agella do. Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they increase the su ace area of those cells. ey are abundant on the su ace of cells that line the intestine, kidney, and other areas in which absorption is an impo ant function. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Whole Cell Activity 72 A cell’s characteristics are determine by the type of proteins produced. e proteins produced are in turn determined by the genetic information in the nucleus. Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its cellular processes. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  DNA 73 1 DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis; a process called gene expression. A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together to form two nucleotide strands. e two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that is twisted around its long axis. Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon © 2019 McGraw-Hill  DNA 74 2 Each nucleotide on one DNA strand has a speci c bonding pattern to another nucleotide on the opposite strand. A gene is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions for making a speci c protein. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Gene Expression 75 Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves transcription and translation. Transcription involves copying DNA into messenger RNA. Translation involves messenger RNA being used to produce a protein. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Transcription 76 1 Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell. DNA determines the structure of mRNA through transcription. During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment separate, and DNA nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA nucleotides that form the mRNA. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Transcription 77 2 DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine, adenine, cytosine, or guanine. Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine, cytosine, or guanine. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Transcription 78 3 DNA nucleotides pair only with speci c RNA nucleotides. DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine. DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil. DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Transcription 79 4 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.23  Translation 80 1 Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has exited the nucleus through the nuclear pores. e mRNA attaches to a ribosome. Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are read by anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on transfer RNA (tRNA). © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Translation 81 2 Transfer RNA transpo s speci c amino acids from the cytoplasm to the ribosome- mRNA complex and initiates formation of the polypeptide chain. e process continues until the entire polypeptide is completely formed. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Translation of mRNA in Protein 82 Synthesis Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.24  Ove iew of Gene Expression 83 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.22  e Cell Cycle 84 1 During growth and development, cell division occurs to increase the number of cells or replace damaged or dying ones. is cell division involves a cell cycle. e cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing phase, called interphase, and a cell dividing phase, termed mitosis. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  e Cell Cycle 85 2 A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase pe orming its normal functions. During interphase, the DNA (located in chromosomes in the cell’s nucleus) is replicated. e two strands of DNA separate from each other, and each strand se es as a template for the production of a new strand of DNA. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  e Cell Cycle 86 3 Nucleotides in the DNA of each template strand pair with new nucleotides that are subsequently joined by enzymes to form a new strand of DNA. e sequence of nucleotides in the DNA template determines the sequence of nucleotides in the new strand of DNA. Replication of DNA gives two identical chromatids joined at a centromere; both form one chromosome. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  DNA Replication 87 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.25  Cell Genetic Content 88 Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46. e sperm and egg contain 23 chromosomes total. One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes, which consist of two X chromosomes if the person is a female or an X and Y chromosome if the person is a male. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Mitosis 89 Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent cell. Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Prophase 90 During prophase the chromatin condenses to form visible chromosomes. Microtubules, termed spindle bers, form to assist in breaking the centromere between the chromatids and move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell. e nuclear membrane dissolves. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Metaphase 91 During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the center of the cell. e movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the attached spindle bers. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Anaphase 92 At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate and each chromatid is called a chromosome. Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the spindle bers toward the centriole at one of the poles of the cell. At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has reached an opposite pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm begins to divide. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Telophase 93 During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the daughter cells become organized to form two separate nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter cell. e chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the genetic material during interphase. Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and two separate daughter cells are produced. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  e Cell Cycle 94 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 3.26 ©Ed Reschke/Photolibra /Getty Images  Di erentiation 95 A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, then a great number of mitotic divisions occur to give the trillions of cells of the body. e process by which cells develop with specialized structures and functions is called di erentiation. During di erentiation of a cell, some po ions of DNA are active, but others are inactive. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Diversity of Cell Types 96 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Apoptosis 97 Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal process by which cell numbers within various tissues are adjusted and controlled. In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue, such as cells between the developing ngers and toes. In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to maintain a constant number of cells within the tissue. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Cellular Aspects of Aging 98 ere are various causes for cellular aging. Existence of a cellular clock Presence of death genes DNA damage Formation of free radicals Mitochondrial damage © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Tumors 99 Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells. ey are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle. Some tumors are benign and some are malignant (cancer). Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed metastasis. © 2019 McGraw-Hill  100 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Seeley’s
ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy & Physiology Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte Jennifer Regan Andrew Russo See separate PowerPoint slides for all gures and tables pre-inse ed into PowerPoint without notes. © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights rese ed. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or fu her distribution permitted without the prior written consent of  2 Chapter 1 e Human Organism Lecture Outline © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Anatomy and Physiology 3 Anatomy: investigates body structure the term means to dissect Physiology: investigates processes and functions Human Physiology: studies the human organism Systemic Physiology: studies body organ-systems Cellular Physiology: studies body cells © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Impo ance of Anatomy and 4 Physiology Understand how the body: responds to stimuli environmental changes environmental cues diseases inju © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Types of Anatomy 5 Systemic: studies body organ-systems Regional: studies body regions (medical schools) Su ace: studies external features, for example, bone projections Anatomical imaging: using technologies (x-rays, ultrasound, MRI) © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Structural and Functional 6 Organization 1 Six levels from chemical to organism: 1. Chemical: smallest level atoms, chemical bonds, molecules 2. Cellular: cells: basic units of life compa ments and organelles examples are mitochondria, nucleus Figure 1.1 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Structural and Functional 7 Organization 2 3. Tissues: group of cells with similar structure and function plus extracellular substances they release four broad types: Epithelial Connective Muscular Ne ous Figure 1.1 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Structural and Functional 8 Organization 3 4. Organs: two or more tissue types acting together to pe orm function(s) Examples: stomach, hea , liver, ova , bladder, kidney Figure 1.1 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Structural and Functional 9 Organization 4 5. Organ-System: group of organs contributing to some function for example, digestive system, reproductive system Figure 1.1 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Structural and Functional 10 Organization 5 6. Organism: all organ systems working together includes associated microorganisms such as intestinal bacteria Figure 1.1 © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©Ba Harris/Getty Images  Structural and Functional 11 Organization6 Figure 1.1 © 2019 McGraw-Hill 1.1(6) ©Ba Harris/Getty Images  Major Organs of the Body 12 Figure 1.2 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Organ Systems of the Body 13 1 Figure 1.3 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Organ Systems of the Body 14 2 Figure 1.3 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Characteristics of Life 15 1 Organization: functional interrelationships between pa s Metabolism: sum of all chemical and physical changes sustaining an organism ability to acquire and use energy in suppo of these changes Responsiveness: ability to sense and respond to environmental changes includes both internal and external environments © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Characteristics of Life 16 2 Growth: can increase in size size of cells, groups of cells, extracellular materials Development: changes in form and size changes in cell structure and function from generalized to specialized—di erentiation Reproduction: formation of new cells or new organisms generation of new individuals tissue repair © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Homeostasis 17 1 Homeostasis: maintenance of constant internal environment despite uctuations in the external or internal environment Variables: measures of body prope ies that may change in value body Examplestemperature of variables: hea rate blood pressure © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Homeostasis 18 2 Normal range: normal extent of increase or decrease around a set point Set point: normal, or average value of a variable Over time, body temperature uctuates around a set point Figure 1.4 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Homeostasis 19 3 Set points for some variables can be temporarily adjusted depending on body activities, Examples as needed: Common cause of change body temperature fever hea rate, blood pressure exercise respirato rate © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Homeostasis 20 4 Negative feedback is the main mechanism used homeostatic regulation. A negative feedback response involves:
detection: of deviation away from set point
and
correction: reversal of deviation toward set point and normal range © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Homeostasis 21 5 e components of feedback: 1. Receptor: detects changes in variable 2. Control center: receives receptor signal establishes set point sends signal to e ector 3. E ector: directly causes change in variable © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Homeostasis 22 6 Figure 1.5 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Negative Feedback Control of Body 23 Temperature Figure 1.6 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Homeostasis 24 7 Positive feedback mechanisms occur when the initial stimulus fu her stimulates the response system response causes progressive deviation away from set point, outside of normal range not directly used for homeostasis some positive feedback occurs under normal conditions
Example: childbi h generally associated with inju , disease negative feedback mechanisms unable to maintain © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Homeostasis 25 8 Comparison of negative feedback and positive feedback Figure 1.7 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Terminology and the Body Plan 26 Anatomical position: person standing erect with face and palms forward all relational descriptions based on the anatomical position, regardless of body orientation Figure 1.8 © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©Eric Wise  Directional Terms 27 1 Superior: above Inferior: below Anterior: front (also: ventral) Posterior: back (also: dorsal) Note: In four-legged animals, the terms ventral (belly) and dorsal (back) correspond to anterior Figure 1.8 and posterior in humans © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©Eric Wise  Directional Terms 28 2 Medial: close to midline Lateral: away from midline Proximal: close to point of attachment Distal: far from point of attachment Supe icial: structure close to the su ace Deep: structure toward the interior of the body Figure 1.8 © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©Eric Wise  Directional Terms 29 3 Figure 1.8 © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©Eric Wise  Body Planes 30 1 Sagittal plane: separates the body into right and left pa s Median plane: a sagittal plane along the midline that divides body into equal left and right halves Transverse plane: a horizontal plane that separates the body into superior and inferior pa s. Frontal plane: a ve ical plane that separates the body into anterior and posterior pa s. Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 1.11©Eric Wise  Body Planes 31 2 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 1.11 (a) ©Eric Wise; (b,c,d) ©R. T. Hutchings  Planes of Section rough an Organ 32 Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 1.12  Body Regions 33 Upper limbs: upper arm, forearm, wrist, hand Lower limbs: thigh, lower leg, ankle, foot Central region: head, neck, trunk Figure 1.9 © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©Eric Wise  Body Pa s and Regions 34 1 Figure 1.9 © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©Eric Wise  Body Pa s and Regions 35 2 Figure 1.9 © 2019 McGraw-Hill ©Eric Wise  Subdivisions of the Abdomen 36 Figure 1.10 © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Body Cavities 37 1 oracic cavity: space within chest wall and diaphragm contains hea , lungs, thymus gland, esophagus, trachea Mediastinum: space between lungs contains hea , thymus gland, Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 1.13  Body Cavities 38 2 Abdominal cavity: space between diaphragm and pelvis contains stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, pancreas, kidneys Pelvic cavity: space within pelvis contains urina bladder, reproductive organs, pa of large Figure intestine © 2019 McGraw-Hill 1.13  Serous Membranes 39 1 Line trunk cavities, cover organs Structure: visceral serous membrane covers organs parietal serous membrane is the outer membrane cavity - a uid- lled space between the membranes Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 1.14  Serous Membranes 40 2 ree sets of serous membranes and cavities: Membrane Cavity Pericardium
Pericardial cavity around hea Pleura
Pleural cavity around lungs Peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity around abdominopelvic
cavity and its organs © 2019 McGraw-Hill  Pericardium and Pericardial Cavity 41 Pericardium visceral pericardium covers hea parietal pericardium thick, brous pericardial cavity reduces friction Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill 1.15a  Pleura and Pleural Cavity 42 Pleura visceral pleura covers lungs parietal pleura lines inner wall of thorax pleural cavity reduces friction adheres lungs to thoracic Figure © 2019 McGraw-Hill wall 1.15b  Peritoneum and Peritoneal Cavity 43 Peritoneum visceral peritoneum covers, anchors organs double layers called mesenteries parietal peritoneum lines inner wall of abdominopelvic cavity © 2019 McGraw-Hill Figure 1.15c  44 © 2019 McGraw-Hill