Chapter 3 NOTES (1) PDF

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY (Adapted from Science, Technology and Society by Serafica, Janice Patria Javier, Pawilen, Gred Tabios, Caslib Jr., Bernardo Nicolas and Alata, Eden Joy Pastor) Adapted by:...

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY (Adapted from Science, Technology and Society by Serafica, Janice Patria Javier, Pawilen, Gred Tabios, Caslib Jr., Bernardo Nicolas and Alata, Eden Joy Pastor) Adapted by: BONIFACIO A. MEJIA  TABLE OF CONTENTS MODULE 1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL EVENTS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY Topic 1: Intellectual Revolutions That Defined Society - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4 Topic 2: Science, Technology, And Nation-building - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 12 Topic 3: Science Education in the Philippines - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 20 Topic 4: Indigenous Science and Technology in the Philippines - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 24 MODULE 2 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY AND THE HUMAN CONDITION Topic 1: Human Flourishing - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30 Topic 2: Technology as a way of Revealing - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 37 Topic 3: The Good Life - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 43 Topic 4: When Technology and Humanity Cross - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 49 MODULE 3 SPECIFIC ISSUES IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY Topic 1: The Information Age - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 59 Topic 2: Biodiversity and the Healthy Society - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 65 Topic 3: Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health, and Politics - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 72 Topic 4: The Nano World - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 82 Topic 5: The Aspects of Gene Therapy - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 88 Topic 6: Climate Change - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 91 2  MODULE 1 GENERAL CONCEPTS AND HISTORICAL EVENTS IN SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY Introduction Human creativity is beyond limit that even our ancestors might not have imagined that our status of science and technology would be as robust as today. Our current understanding about the nature and the world is a result of constant over throwing of paradigm wherein an old paradigm like Geocentric Model is replaced by a paradigm that has a higher content and explanatory power like the Heliocentric Model. Such is termed scientific revolution. This is just one of the many theories that were challenged in the history of Science and have helped shaped our society. Development of Science and Technology does not only leave indelible impact in the history but its trail can be traced by its influence in our society and country as a whole. In this unit, you will learn how science and technology has greatly influenced the development of the Philippine society. You will evaluate different government policies and programs to see how they have shaped the nation. You will also learn significant inventions and projects accomplished by Filipinos that greatly develop the countries’ science and technology, and have been a major contributor to the Philippine nation- building. This module will allow you to time travel through the antecedents of science and technology; lets you investigate how the present status of science and technology came into being, and explore the major turns in the course of global and national history that led it to its exhilarating and captivating development. 3  TOPIC 1 INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS THAT DEFINED SOCIETY OVERVIEW This module will give light to the development of science and scientific ideas in the heart of society. It is the goal of this lesson to articulate ways by which society is transformed by science and technology. Scientific revolution marked the birth of science as discipline and as a field of inquiry and gave birth to the development of science method. It inspired human creativity and critical thinking, moving away from thought experiments to data-driven and experimental-based ideas. There were many intellectuals who made essential contributions in science during this period such as Nicolas Copernicus, Charles Darwin and Sigmund Freud developed the idea of psychoanalysis. Science also developed in different parts of the world: in Asia. Europe. Mesoamerica, and Africa. OBJECTIVES At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:  Discuss how the ideas postulated by Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud contributed to the spark of scientific revolution.  Analyze how scientific revolution is done in various parts of the world like in Latin America, East Asia, Middle East, and Africa. COURSE MATERIALS 1. Scientific Revolution  Science is as old as a word itself. That is no individual that can exactly identify when and where science began. From the genesis of time, science has existed. It is always interwoven with the society. So, how can science be defined? a. Science as an idea. It includes ideas, theories and all available systematic explanations and observations about the natural and physical world. 4  b. Science as an intellectual activity. It encompasses a systematic and practical study of the natural and physical world. This process of study involves systematic observation and experimentation. c. Science as a body of knowledge. It is a subject or discipline, a field of study, or a body of knowledge that deals with the process of learning about the natural and physical world. This is what we refer to as school science. d. Science as a personal and social activity. This explains that science is both knowledge and activities done by human beings to develop better understanding of the world around them. It is a means to improve life and to survive life. It is interwoven with people’s lives.  Human beings have embarked in scientific activities in order to know and understand everything around them. They have persistently observed and studied the natural and physical world in order to find meanings and seek answers to many questions. They have developed noble ideas, later known as philosophy, to provide alternative or possible explanations to certain phenomena. Human also used religion to rationalized the origins of life and all lifeless forms.  Scientific revolution was the golden age for people committed to scholarly life in science but it was also a deeply trying moment to some scientific individuals that led to their painful death or condemnation from the religious institutions who tried to preserve their faith, religion, and theological views.  Scientific revolution is very significant in the development of human beings, transformation of the society, and in the formulation of scientific ideas. It significantly improved the conduct of scientific investigations, experiments, and observations. The scientific revolution also led to the creation of new research fields in science an prompted the establishment of a strong foundation for modern science. In many ways, scientific revolution transformed the natural world and the world of ideas. 2. Some Intellectuals and their Revolutionary Ideas  To further understand what exactly happened during scientific revolution, it is important to examine the different individuals whose ideas have shaken and contested the dominant theories and ideas during this period – the truths of their time. Scientists in all periods of time are driven by their curiosity, critical thinking, and creativity to explore the physical and natural world. Their love for science is driven by their deep passion to know and to discover.  Scientists are not driven by clamor for honor and publicity. Some scientists were never appreciated during their times, some were sentenced to death, while others were condemned by the Church during their time. In spite of all the predicaments and 5  challenges they experienced, they never stopped experimenting, theorizing, and discovering new knowledge and ideas. 2.1. Nicolas Copernicus  Copernicus resembled the Greek ancient philosophers or thinkers – he did not do anything extensive such as observing heavenly bodies or inviting people to test his ideas. His ideas were an example of what is presently called as thought experiment. By the time he finished his doctorate degree, Copernicus had been appointed as canon at Frombork Cathedral in Poland. Despite his duty as a canon, he had plenty of time to sustain his interest in astronomy. Copernicus was strongly influenced by a book entitled Epitome published in 1496 by a German author, Johannes Mueller. This book contains Mueller’s observations of the heavens and some commentary on earlier works especially that of Ptolemy.  Copernicus’s idea and model of the universe was essentially complete in 1510. Not long after that, he circulated a summary of his ideas to his few close friends in manuscript called Commentariolus (Little commentary). There was no proof that Copernicus was concerned about the risk of persecution by the Church if he published his ideas formally. 2.2. Charles Darwin  Charles Darwin is famous for his theory of evolution. He changed our concept of the world’s creation and its evolution. Johnson (2012) described Darwin as a genius who came from a line of intellectually gifted and wealthy family. He developed his interest in natural history during his time as a student at Shrewsbury School. He would also spend time taking long walks to observe his surroundings while collecting specimen and he pored over books in his father’s library (Gribbin,2003).  According to Johnson, Darwin went to the best schools but was observed to be a mediocre student. He struggled in his study in medicine and ministry, which his father has imposed to him. Darwin’s life soon changed when one of his professors recommended him to join a five-year voyage through the HMS Beagle on the Island of Galapagos.  Darwin published his book The origin of Species in 1589. This book is considered to be the one of the most important works in scientific literature. His accomplishments were so diverse that it is useful to distinguish two fields to which he made major contributions: evolutionary, biology and philosophy of science.  More than these works, what made Darwin truly remarkable was his courage to challenge religious and unscientific ideas that are deemed to be prominent during those days. His unorthodox way of pursuing science gave more value to evidence-based science. Darwin provided a different framework for doing scientific activities. It is a science marked by observation and experiment. 2.3. Sigmund Freud 6   Freud is a famous figure in the field of psychology. Rosenfels (1980) also described him as a towering literary figure and a very talented communicator who did his share to raise the consciousness of the civilized world in psychological matters.  He also made a significant contribution in the scientific world through the development of an important observational method to gather reliable data to study human’s inner life. This method is popularly known as the method of psychoanalysis. The scientific hypothesis he formulated formed the essential fundamental version of this method.  For Freud, this method of psychoanalysis is a scientific way to study the human mind and neurotic illness. It is no doubt that amidst all questions on his works that led to some sort of academic controversy, his method of psychoanalysis had great impact on the scientific way of understanding human nature. 3. Cradles of Early Science 3.1. Development of Science in Mesoamerica  Mesoamerica includes the entire area of Central America from Southern Mexico up to the border of South America. There is no doubt that the Mesoamerican region is rich in culture and knowledge prior to the arrival of its European colonizers. 3.1.1. The Maya Civilization  The Maya civilization is one of the famous civilizations that lasted for approximately 2,000 years.  These people are known for their works in astronomy. They incorporated their advanced understanding of astronomy into their temples and other religious structures. Mayan knowledge and understanding about celestial bodies were advanced for their time, as evidenced by their knowledge of predicting eclipse and using astrological cycles in planting and harvesting. They are also known for measuring time using two complicated calendar system.  The Mayans also developed the technology for growing different crops and buildings elaborate cities using ordinary machineries and tools. They built hydraulics system with sophisticated waterways to supply water to different communities. The Mayans built looms for weaving cloth and devised a rainbow glittery paints made from a mineral called mica.  The Mayans are considered one of the most scientifically advanced societies in Mesoamerica. They are also famous as one of the world’s first civilizations to use a writing system known as the Mayan hieroglyphics. They were also skilled in mathematics and created a number system based on the numeral 20. Moreover, they independently developed to help the concept of zero and positional value, even before the Romans did. 7  3.1.2.. The Inca Civilization  The Inca civilization is also famous in Mesoamerica. The Incas made advanced scientific ideas considering their limitations as an old civilization. The following were scientific ideas and tools that they developed to help them in everyday life:  roads paved with stones;  stone buildings that surmounted earthquakes and other disasters;  irrigation system and technique for storing water for their crops to grow in all types of land;  calendar with 12 months to mark their religious festivals and prepare them for planting season;  the first suspension bridge;  quipu, a system of knotted ropes to keep records that only experts can interpret; and  Inca textiles since cloth was one of the specially prized artistic achievements. 3.1.3. The Aztec Civilization  The Aztec civilization has also made substantial contributions to science and technology and to the society as a whole. Some of their contributions are the following:  Mandatory education. The Aztec puts value on education; that is why their children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. Its is an early form of universal or inclusive education.  Chocolates. The Aztec in Mexico developed chocolate during their time. In Mayan culture, they used it as currency. The Aztec valued the cacao beans highly and made it as part of their tribute to their gods.  Antispasmodic medication. They used a type of antispasmodic medication that could prevent muscle spasm and relax muscles, which could help during surgery.  Chinampa. It is a form of Aztec technology for agricultural farming in which the land was divided into rectangular areas and surrounded by canals.  Aztec calendar. This enabled them to plan their activities, rituals, and planting season.  Invention of the canoe. A light narrow boat used for traveling in water systems. 3.2. Development of Science in Asia 8   Asia is the biggest continent in the world and the home of many ancient civilizations. It is a host to many cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities of all ages. In the field of science, technology, and mathematics, great civilizations have stood out: India, China, and the Middle East civilizations. These civilizations were incomparable in terms of their contributions to the development of knowledge during their time. 3.2.1. India  India is a huge peninsula surrounded by vast bodies of water and fortified by huge mountains in its northern boarders.  They are known for manufacturing iron and in metallurgical works.  They are famous in medicine. For example, Ayurveda, a system of traditional medicine that originated in ancient India before 2500 BC, is still practiced as a form of alternative medicine.  They are notable in the field of astronomy. They developed theories on the configuration of the universe, the spherical self- supporting Earth, and the year 360 days with 12 equal parts of 30 days each.  They are also known for their mathematics. The people of this civilization, according to Bisht (1982), tried to standardize measurement of length to a high degree of accuracy and designed a ruler, the Mohenjodaro ruler. 3.2.2. China  China is one of the ancient civilizations with substantial contributions in many areas of life like medicine, astronomy, science, mathematics, arts, philosophy, and music, among others. Chinese civilizations have greatly influenced many of its neighbor countries like Korea, Japan, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and other countries that belong to the old Silk Road.  Chinese are known for traditional medicines, a product of centuries of experiences and discovery of the Chinese people.  In terms of technology, the Chinese are known to develop many tools.  In astronomy, they also made significant records on supernovas, lunar and solar eclipses, and comets, which were carefully recorded and preserved to understand better the heavenly bodies and their effects to our world (Mayall, 1939). 3.2.3. Middle East Countries 9   The Middle East countries are dominantly occupied by Muslims. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, or what is called the Golden Age of Islam lasted util the 13th century.  The common language of Arabic, access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, and their proximity to India were contributory to the intellectualization of the Muslims and provide their scholars knowledge to create innovations and develop new ideas. But contrary to the Greeks,  Muslim scientists placed greater value on science experiments rather than plain-thought experiments. This led to the development of the scientific method in the Muslim world, and made significant improvements by using experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation.  A Muslim scientist named Ibn al – Haytham is also regarded as a Father od Optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light.  In mathematics, the mathematician Muhammad Ibn Musa al – Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of algorithm while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications.  Some scholars considered Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the “Father of the Chemistry”  In the field of medicine, Ibn Sina pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. 3.3 Development of Science in Africa  Africa is blessed with natural and mineral resources. Science also emerged in this part of the planet long before the Europeans colonized it. This history of science and mathematics show that similar to other ancient civilizations, the early civilizations in Africa are knowledge producers, too.  The ancient Egyptian civilization has contributed immensely and made significant advances in the fields of astronomy, mathematics, and medicine.  Egypt was known to be a center of alchemy, which is known as the medieval forerunner of chemistry.  Astronomy was also famous in the African region. For instance, documents show that Africans used three types of calendars: lunar, solar, and stellar, or a combination of the three. 10   Metallurgy was also known in the African regions during the ancient times. They invented metal tools used in their homes, in agriculture, and in building their magnificent architectures.  Mathematics was also known to be prominent in the life of early people in the African continent. The Lebombo Bone from the mountains between Swaziland and South Africa, which may have been a tool for multiplication, division, and simple mathematical calculation or a six- month lunar calendar, is considered to be the oldest known mathematical artifact dated from 35,000 BCE. 4. Additional Materials 1. Watch videos related to the topic 1.1. Interview of Stephen Colbert to Neil de Grasse Tyson at Montclair Kimberley Academy Watch: https://youtu.be/YXh9RQCvxmg 1.2. Introduction of Scientific Revolution Watch: https://youtu.be/rQ2dSTQwJo8 1.3. Development of Science in Mesoamerica Watch: https://youtu.be/BYR_ISwJHag ACTIVITIES 1. Essay. Read the quotation and answer the following questions. “If I have seen further than others, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.” 1.1. What do you think Newton has seen? 1.2. Who do you think Newton f=refers to as “giants”? 1.3 What do you think this quote tells you about Newton’s character? 2. Term Paper. Writing term papers on the following topics 1.1. Do you think thought experiment is still useful in science in the present time? 1.2. By looking for other sources and literatures, what are the controversies or questions on Freud’s ideas? 1.3. How did society shape science and how did science shape society? 1.4. How do social and human issues influence science? 1.5. How do the political and cultural landscapes of the society affect the development of scientific culture, science activities, and science literacy? 3. Assessment. Answer the following. 2.1. Do you think the Church should intervene in scientific activities? Explain 2.2. How can Darwin’s evolutionary theory influence the following fields in modern times: 11   Economy  Agriculture  Political Science  Religion 2.3. Considering the current state of our society, do you think science literacy among people has contributed to the growth of our economy? 2.4. How can science influence government policies? REFERENCE Science, Technology and Society by Serafica, Janice Patria Javier, Pawilen, Gred Tabios, Caslib Jr., Bernardo Nicolas and Alata, Eden Joy Pastor TOPIC 2 SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING OVERVIEW This module discussed the influence of science and technology in the development of the Philippines as a country. Even before the time of Spanish colonization in the Philippines, various people and communities already practiced science. They invented tools and built structures, studied the medicinal uses of plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict season and weather and used indigenous science in agriculture. These are considered indigenous science , which is one foundations of modern science. The growth of science and its development as a field in the country as hybrid of indigenous and foreign ideas. Spain and the United States played an important role in building the foundation of science in the Philippines. The government establishes various science programs, policies, and projects to further strengthen the science program in the Philippines. Through the years, many Filipinos were able to establish themselves as scientists and science educators in various scientific areas and fields. Inventions and innovations were done by these Filipino scientists. Lastly, the demands of globalization prompted the Philippines in science and technology programs and projects through the ASEAN economic agenda. OBJECTIVES At the end of this module. The students should be able to: 12   Discuss the role of science policies pertaining to science and technology in Philippine nation-building;  Evaluate government policies pertaining to science and technology in terms of their contributions to nation building; and  Identify actual science and technology policies of the government and appraise their impact on the development of the Filipino nation. COURSE MATERIALS 1. Brief Historical Background of Science and Technology in the Philippines  Science, in pre-Spanish Philippines, is embedded in the way of life of the people. Scientific knowledge is observed in the way they plant their crops that provide them food, in taking care of animals to help them in their daily tasks, and for food production. Science is observed in the way they interpret the movements of heavenly bodies to predict seasons and climates, and in organizing days into months and years. They use science in preparing the soil for agricultural purposes and like any other ancient cultures, they discovered the medicinal uses of plants.  Technology is used by people in building houses, irrigations, and in developing tools that they can use in everyday life. They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and fishing: for fighting their enemies during war or tribal conflicts; and for transportation, both on land and on waterways. They also developed technologies in creating musical instruments.  The different archeological artifacts discovered in different parts of the country also prove that the Metal Age also had a significant influence on the lives of early Filipinos. The sophisticated designs of gold and silver jewelry, ceramics, and metal tools proved that their technological ideas helped in the development of different tools. Also, trading with China, Indonesia, Japan, and other nearby countries have influenced their lives by providing different opportunities for cultural and technological exchange.  All these ancient practices in science and technology are considered now as indigenous science or folk science.  When the Spaniard colonized the country, they brought with them their own culture and practices.  They established schools for boys and girls and introduced the concept of subjects and disciplines. It was the beginning of formal science and technology in the country, known now as school of science and technology. 13   Learning the science in school focuses on understanding different concepts related to the human body, plants, animals, and heavenly bodies. Technology focuses on using and developing house tools used in everyday life.  The Filipinos developed ways to replicate the technology brought by the Spaniards using indigenous materials. Medicine and advanced science were introduced in formal colleges and universities established by the Catholic orders.  The galleon trade has brought additional technology and development in the Philippines. Although it is only beneficial for the Spaniards, these trades allowed other ideas, crops, tools, cultural practices, technology, and Western practices to reach the country.  Some Filipino students who were able to study in Europe also contributed to the advancement on medicine, engineering, arts, music, and literature in the country.  The Philippines, being one of the centers of global trade in Southeast Asia during that time, was considered as one of the most developed places in the region.  The Americans established the public education system, improved the engineering works and the health conditions of the people.  They established the modern research university, the University of the Philippines, and created more public hospitals than the former colonial master.  The mineral resources of the country were also explored and exploited during the American times.  Transportation and communication systems were improved, though not accessible throughout the country.  The Americans did everything to “Americanize” the Philippines. They recognized the learning of science and introduced it in public and private schools. In basic education, science education focuses on nature studies and science and sanitation, until it became a subject formally known as “Science”.  The teaching of science in higher education has also greatly improved and modernized. Researchers were done to control malaria, cholera, and tuberculosis and other tropical diseases.  World War II has destabilized the development of the country in many ways. Institutions and public facilities were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and many lives were destroyed. The country had a difficult time to rebuild itself from the ruins of the war. The human spirit to survive and to rebuild the country may be strong but the capacity of the country to bring back what was destroyed was limited. The reparation funds focused on building some institutions and public facilities like schools, hospitals, and transportation systems. The reparation money from Japan was also concentrated on building highways and in providing technological training and human resource development in the country. 14   The whole nation has been focusing on using its limited resources in improving its science and technological capability for the establishment of a new republic.. It has explored the use of ODA or Overseas Development Allocations from different countries to help the country improve its scientific productivity and technological capability. Human resource development is at the heart of these efforts focusing on producing more engineers, scientists, technology experts, doctors, and other professionals in the country.  The development of science and technology in the Philippines, based on its brief history, is shaped by several factors and influences. Like in the history of science on other countries, it is always shaped by human and social activities, both internal and external.  Science and technology may have significant impact on the lives of the people and in the development of the Philippine society. However, improving the quality of science education still remains as a big challenge in the country. School science from basic education to graduate education is improving slowly, and there are only few students enrolling in science and technology courses. 2. Government Policies on Science and Technology  The Philippine government introduced and implemented several programs, projects, and policies to boost the area of science and technology. The goal is to prepare the whole country and its people to meet the demands of a technologically driven world and capacitate the people to live in a world driven by science.  Padilla-Concepcion (2015) reported that in 2015, in response to the ASEAN 2015 Agenda, the government, particularly the Department of Science and Technology (DOST), has sought the expertise of the National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) to consult various sectors in the society to study how the Philippines can prepare itself in meeting the ASEAN 2015 Goals. As a result of the consultation, the NCRP is expected to recommend policies and programs that will improve the competitiveness of the Philippines in the ASEAN Region.  The NCRP clustered these policies into four, namely: 1. Social Sciences, Humanities, Education, International Policies and Governance  Integrating ASEAN awareness in basic education without adding to the curriculum  Emphasizing teaching in the mother tongue  Developing school infrastructure and providing for ICT broadband  Local food security 2. Physics, Engineering and Industrial Research, Earth and Space Sciences, and Mathematics 15   Emphasizing degrees, licenses, and employment opportunities  Outright grants for peer monitoring  Review of R.A. 9184  Harnessing science and technology as an independent mover of development 3. Medical, Chemical, and Pharmaceutical Sciences  Ensuring compliance of drug-manufacturing firms with ASEAN-harmonized standards by full implementation of the Food and Drug Administration  Creating an education council dedicated to standardization of pharmaceutical services and care  Empowering food and drug agencies to conduct evidence-based research as pool of information  Allocating two percent of the GDP to research  Legislating a law supporting human genome projects 4. Biological Sciences, Agriculture, and Forestry  Protecting and conserving biodiversity by full implementation of existing laws  Use of biosafety and standard model by ASEAN countries  Promoting indigenous knowledge systems and indigenous people’s conservation  Formulation of common food and safety standards  There are also other existing programs supported by the Philippine government through the DOST. Some of these projects are the following:  Providing funds for basic research and patents related to science and technology. The government funds basic and applied researchers. Funding of theses research and projects are also from the Overseas Development Aid (ODA) from different countries.  Providing scholarships for undergraduate and graduate studies of students in the field of science and technology. Saloma (2015) pointed out that the country needs to produce more doctoral graduates in the field of science and technology, and produce more research in these fields, including engineering.  Establishing more branches of the Philippine Science High School System for training young Filipino in the field of science and technology.  Creating science and technology parks to encourage academe and industry partnerships.  Balik Scientist Program to encourage Filipino scientists abroad to come home and work in the Philippines or conduct research and projects in collaboration with Philippine-based scientists.  Developing science and technology parks in academic campuses to encourage academe and industry partnerships.  The establishment of the National Science Complex and National Engineering Complex within the University of the Philippines campus in Diliman. These aimed to develop more science and technology and engineering manpower resources 16  needed by the country. They also aimed to produce more researches in these fields.  The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) identified several capacity-building programs such as:  Establishment of national centers of excellence  Manpower and institutional development programs, such as the Engineering and Science Education Program (ESEP) to produce more PhD graduates in science and engineering  Establishment of regional centers to support specific industries that will lead the country in different research and development areas  Establishment of science and technology business centers to assist, advise, and incubate technopreneurship ventures  Strengthen science education at an early stage through the Philippine Science High School System  In the field of education, several science-related programs and projects were created to develop the scientific literacy of the country. Special science classes were organized and special science elementary schools were established in different regions. Aside from these, science and mathematics in basic education were continuously improved. The current K to 12 education programs included Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) as one of its major tracks in the senior high school program to encourage more students to enroll in science-related fields in college.  Lately, the Commission on Higher Education launched its Philippine-California Advanced research Institutes (PICARI) Project to allow several higher education institutions in the Philippines and some US-based laboratories, research institutes, and universities to work on research and projects related to science, agriculture, engineering, health, and technology. This project is hoped to strengthen the STEM competitiveness of the country.  There are many other areas and fields that the country is looking forward to embark various research and projects. The following are some of them:  Use of alternative and safe energy  Harnessing mineral resources  Finding cure for various diseases and illness  Climate change and global warming  Increasing food production  Preservation of natural resources  Coping with natural disasters and calamities  Infrastructure development 17   The Philippine Congress has also created various laws related to science and technology. These laws serve as a legal framework for science and technology in the country. These laws vary according to different themes such as: conservation, health- related, technology-building, and supporting basic research, among others. Some laws and policies are in line with international treaties such as United Nations (UN), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and other international agencies. 3. Famous Filipinos in the Field of Science  We rarely hear of Filipino scientists being discussed in science classes. Lee-Chua (2000) identified 10 outstanding Filipino Scientist who have made significant contributions in Philippine science. These scientists are also famous abroad especially in different science disciplines: agriculture, mathematics, physics, medicine, marine science, chemistry, engineering, and biology.  These Filipino scientists are:  Ramon Cabanos Barba – for his outstanding research on tissue culture in Philippine mangoes  Josefina Cacas Comiso – for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by using satellite images  Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. – known internationally in the field of electrical engineering; was elected as officer of the famous Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering  Lourdes Jansuy Cruz – notable for her research on sea snail venom  Fabian Millar Dayrit – for his research on herbal medicine  Rafael Dineros Guerrero III – for his research on tilapia culture  Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. – for inventing the meconium drug testing  Lilian Formalejo Patena – for doing research on plant biotechnology  Mari-Jo Panganiban Ruiz – for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist  Gregory Ligot Tangonan – for his research in the field of communications technology  Some Filipino scientists who are recognized here and abroad for their outstanding contributions in science:  Caesar A. Saloma – an internationally renowned physicist  Edgardo Gomez – famous scientist in marine science  William Padolina – chemistry and president of National Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) – Philippines  Angel Alcala – marine science 18   There are other scientists in the Philippines who were not identified in the list. Yet, the Philippines still need more scientists and engineers, and there is a need to support scientific research in the country.  The University of the Philippines – Los Baños is a science paradise for agriculture, forestry, plant and animal science, and veterinary science. It has produced numerous scientists and various research in the fields mentioned.  The University of the Philippines – Visayas is also a national center for marine science, fisheries, and other related sciences.  The University of the Philippines – Manila is a center of excellence and has produced many researchers, doctors, health professionals, and scientists in the area of medical and public health. The University of the Philippines – Diliman also has established a national science and engineering complex to develop more research and produce more scientists and engineers in the country.  The government must find ways to establish more research laboratories and research institutes. There is also a need to find ways on how their researches are disseminated to the public. 4. Additional Materials 1. Watch videos relates to the topic 1.1. Philippines, Now and Then Watch: https://youtu.be/Zi_yWetmdtA 1.2. 26th ASEAN 2015 Summit Watch: https://youtu.be/mhB-CVxXRic 2. Additional Readings 2.1. Concepcion, G.P., Padlan, E.A. & Saloma, C.A. (Editors). (2008). Selected Essay on Science and Technology for Securing a Better Philippines. Diliman, Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. 2.2. Lee – Chua, Q. (2000). 10 Outstanding Filipino Scientists. Quezon City: Anvil Publishing. 2.3. Padilla – Concepcion, G. (2015). Science Philippines: Essays on Science by Filipinos Volume III. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press. ACTIVITIES 1. Research Paper. Writing term papers/research papers on the following topic. 1.1. What are the significant contributions of the Spaniards and Americans to the development of science and technology in the Philippines? 19  1.2. What can you say about the state of science and technology during the Spanish and American period? 1.3. How does school science shape science and technology in the country 2. E-Portfolio. Present an e-portfolio showing their contributions and the reasons why they pursue a career in science. 2.1. Identify several Filipino scientists. 2.2. Research on their contributions in the field of science. 2.3. Examine what made them pursue a career in science. 3. Assessment 3.1. Identify several issues in the Philippines. What science – and technology – related policies could be developed and implemented to solve these issues? 3.2. What can you say about the implementation of some science and technology policies and projects in the country? 3.3. What are the laws related to science and technology in the Philippines from the year 2000? How are these laws implemented? REFERENCE Science, Technology and Society by Serafica, Janice Patria Javier, Pawilen, Gred Tabios, Caslib Jr., Bernardo Nicolas and Alata, Eden Joy Pastor TOPIC 3 SCIENCE EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES OVERVIEW Science education deals with the teaching and learning of science and in helping the public develop science literacy. This is important in the promotion and development of science and technology in the country. This module discussed the concept of science education and introduced science education in the Philippines from basic education to tertiary education. To promote science education, science schools were established to develop gifted students in science and mathematics such as the Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS), Manila Science High School, Quezon City Regional Science High School, and the Special Science Elementary Schools Project. Science programs and projects were organized and developed to nurture innovation in science in the country, and to encourage individuals to pursue careers and research in science and technology. OBJECTIVES 20  At the end of this module, the students should be able to:  Discuss the concept of science education; and  Identify science schools established to promote science education in the Philippines. COURSE MATERIALS 1. The Concept of Science Education  Science education focuses on teaching, learning, and understanding science.  Teaching science involves developing ways on how to effectively teach science. This means exploring pedagogical theories and models in helping teachers teach scientific concepts and process effectively.  Learning science, on the other hand, includes both pedagogy and the most interesting aspect, which is helping students understand and love science. Understanding science implies developing and applying science-process skills and using science literacy in understanding the natural world and activities in everyday life.  In the discourse of science education, John Dewey (2001) stressed the importance of utilizing the natural environment to teach students. Accordingly, nature must indeed furnish its physical stimuli to provide wealth of meaning through social activities and thinking. It is not surprising therefore that science education is important.  Science education is justified by the vast amount of scientific knowledge developed in this area that prepares citizens in a scientifically and technologically driven world. Developing a science culture is therefore an immense responsibility for schools. 2. Science Education in Basic and Tertiary Education  In basic education, science education helps students learn important concepts and facts that are related to everyday life including important skills such as process skills, critical thinking skills, and life skills that are needed in coping up with daily life activities. Science education will develop a strong foundation for studying science and for considering science-related careers in the future. This is an investment for the country to develop a scientifically cultured and literate citizenry.  In tertiary education, science education deals with developing students’ understanding and appreciation of science ideas and scientific works. This is done through offering basic science courses in the General Education curriculum. It focuses on the preparation of science teachers, scientists, engineers, and other professionals in various science- 21  related fields such as engineering, agriculture, medicine, and health sciences. The state provides scholarships to encourage more students to pursue science courses. 3. Science Schools in the Philippines 3.1. Philippine Science High School System (PSHSS)  This is a government program for gifted students in the Philippines. It is a service institute of the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) whose mandate is to offer free scholarship basis for secondary course with special emphasis on subjects pertaining to the sciences, with the end-view of preparing its students for a science career (Republic Act No. 3661). The school maintains a dormitory for all its students.  Since its inception, the PSHSS continues to pursue its vision to develop Filipino science scholars with scientific minds and passion for excellence. PSHSS students have proven to be a beacon of excellence, courage, and hope for the country. 3.2. Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project  The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project is in pursuance to DepEd Order No. 73 s. 2008, and DepEd Order No. 51 s. 2010. This project started in June 2007 with 57 identified elementary schools that participated or were identified as science elementary schools in the country. Since its inception, the number have grown to more than 60 schools nationwide and this is now its sixth year of implementation.  The SSES Project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological knowledge, skills, and values. Its mission is to:  Provide a learning environment to science-inclined children through a special curriculum that recognizes the multiple intelligences of the learners;  Promote the development of lifelong learning skills; and  Foster the holistic development of the learners.  The subject Science and Health is taught in Grade 1 with a longer time compared to other subjects: 70 minutes for Grades I to III and 80 minutes for IV to VI. The curriculum also utilizes different instructional approaches that address the learning styles and needs of the learners like the use of investigatory projects. 3.3. Quezon City Regional Science High School 22   Originally, it was named Quezon City Science High School and it was established on September 17, 1967. It was turned into a regional science high school for the National Capital Region in 1999.  The school was a product of a dream to establish a special science school for talented students in science and mathematics. The focus of the curriculum is on science and technology. The school still teaches the basic education courses prescribed by the Department of Education (DepEd) for secondary education. However, there are additional subjects in sciences and technology that students should take.  The school envisions to serve as a venue in providing maximum opportunities for science-gifted students to develop spirit of inquiry and creativity. The school is well-supported by the local government unit and by the Parents and Teachers Association (PTA). The school is under the Department of Education. 3.4. Manila Science High School  The school was established on October 1, 1963 as the Manila Science High School (MSHS). It is the first science high school in the Philippines. The organization and curriculum of the school puts more emphasis on science and mathematics.  MSHS aims to produce scientists with souls. In order to do this, humanities courses and other electives are included in their curriculum. Students are also encouraged to participate in various extracurricular activities.  The school administers an entrance exam, the Manila Science High School Admission Test (MSAT), for students who wish to enroll. The MSAT has five parts: aptitude in science, aptitude test in mathematics, problem-solving test in science, problem-solving test in mathematics, and proficiency in English.. 3.5. Central Visayan Institute Foundation  It is the home and pioneer of the prominent school-based innovation known as the Dynamic Learning Program (DLP). The DLP is a synthesis pf classical and modern pedagogical theories adapted to foster the highest level of learning, creativity and productivity.  The school takes pride in its Research Center for Theoretical Physics (RCTP) established in 1992, which organizes small international workshops to foster that informal but intense exchange of ideas and perspectives on outstanding problems in physics and mathematics. 23 ACTIVITIES: 1. Essay Writing. Write 300 words essay on the following guide questions. 1.1. What other government projects and programs are available for science education in the Philippines? 1.2. Are there private schools with outstanding science education programs? Identify and compare their science education programs with public science schools. 2. Assessment 2.1. Discuss science-related issues and problems in the country. 2.1. Identify science and technology policies that could be adapted or implemented in the Philippines. REFERENCE Science, Technology and Society by Serafica, Janice Patria Javier, Pawilen, Gred Tabios, Caslib Jr., Bernardo Nicolas and Alata, Eden Joy Pastor TOPIC 4 INDIGENOUS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES OVERVIEW This topic discussed the concept of indigenous knowledge and its influence to the development of indigenous science. The communities in the Philippines have maintained vast amounts of indigenous knowledge, cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs. These include beliefs and practices ranging from different areas such as health, environment, peace and order, agriculture, food production, astronomy, music, and literature. The indigenous knowledge system of the people served as the foundation for the development of indigenous science. Even before the time of the Spanish colonization in the Philippines, various people and communities already practiced science. They invented tools and built structures, studied the medicinal uses of plants, observed heavenly bodies to predict seasons and weather, and used indigenous science in agriculture. These are considered indigenous science, which is one of the foundations of modern science. 24 OBJECTIVES: At the end of this module, the students should be to:  Discuss the concept of indigenous science; and  Discuss the contribution of indigenous science in the development of science and technology in the Philippines. COURSE MATERIALS 1. Indigenous Knowledge System  Indigenous knowledge is embedded in the daily life experiences of young children as they grow up. They live and grow in a society where the members of the community prominently practice indigenous knowledge. Their parents and older folks served as their first teachers and their methods of teaching are very effective in transmitting cultural knowledge in their minds.  The lessons they learned are intimately interwoven with their culture and environment. These lessons comprised of good values and life stories of people on their daily life struggles. Their views about nature and their reflections on their experiences in daily life are evident in their stories, poems, and songs.  Some examples of indigenous knowlege that are taught and practiced by the indigenous people are:  Predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animals’ behavior and celestial bodies;  Using herbal medicine;  Preserving foods;  Classifying plants and animals into families and groups based on cultural properties;  Preserving and selecting good seeds for planting;  Using indigenous technology in daily lives;  Building local irrigation systems;  Classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties;  Producing wines and juices from tropical fruits; and  Keeping the custom of growing plants and vegetables in the yard. 2. Indigenous Science 25   Indigenous science is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by different groups of people and early civilizations (Gribbin, 2001; Sibisi, 2004). It includes complex arrays of knowledge expertise, practices, and representations that guide human societies in their enumerable interactions with the natural milieu: agriculture, medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and strategies for coping with changing environments (Pawilen, 2005). Ogawa (1995) claimed that it is collectively lived in and experienced by the people of a given culture.  Indigenous beliefs also develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to scientific attitudes as identified by Johnston (2000), namely: (1) motivating attitudes; (2) cooperating attitudes; (3) practical attitudes; and (4) reflective attitudes. These cultural beliefs therefore can be good foundation for developing positive values toward learning and doing science and in bringing science in a personal level.  Indigenous science knowledge has developed diverse structures and contents through the interplay between the society and the environment explained Pawilen (2005). According to Kuhn (1962), developmental stages of most sciences are characterized by continual competition between a number of distinct views of nature, each partially derived from, and all roughly compatible with the dictates of scientific observation and method.  The concept of Indigenous science (according to Pawilen’s framework). 1. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing, classifying, measuring, problem-solving, interfering, communicating, and predicting. 2. Indigenous science is guided by culture and community values such as the following:  The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator.  The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as people.  All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with each other.  Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources. They have a responsibility to preserve it.  Nature is friend to human beings – it needs respect and proper care. 3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced and valued by people and communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine, indigenous farming methods, and folk astronomy.  Indigenous science is important in the development of science and technology in the Philippines. Like the ancient civilizations, indigenous science gave birth to the development of science and technology as a field and as a discipline. Indigenous science helped the people in understanding the natural environment and in coping with everyday life. UNESCO’s Declaration on Science and the Use of Scientific Knowledge 26  (1999) recognized indigenous science as a historical and value contribution to science and technology. 4. Additional Materials 1. Watch video related to the topic. 4.1.Indigenous Knowledge System Watch: https://youtu.be/D6CI0txG7iU 2. Read additional information about the topic. 2.1. How indigenous knowledge advances modern science and technology. Read:https://theconversation.com/how-indigenous-knowledge-advances- modern-science-and-technology-89351 ACTIVITIES 1. Analysis Paper. Write a one or two-page analysis on Filipino indigenous knowledge. 2. Term Paper. Write a term paper about the connection of indigenous knowledge to science and technology. 3. Assessment. Answer the following questions below. MULTIPLE CHOICE: Choose the letter of the correct answer. 1. Which period enabled the people to reflect, rethink, and re-examine their beliefs and their way of life. A. Pre-Spanish period C. Scientific revolution B. Spanish revolt D. American colonization 2. He wanted a model of the universe in which everything moved around a single center at unvarying rates. A. Nicolaus Copernicus C. Charles Darwin B. Galileo Galilei D. Sigmund Freud 3. During the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, one similarity in the work of many scientists and philosophers was that they A. relied heavily on the ideas of medieval thinkers B. favored an absolute monarchy as a way of improving economic condition C. received support from the Catholic Church D. examined natural laws governing the universe 4. Which statement best describes the effects of the works of Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Sir Isaac Newton A. The acceptance of traditional authority was strengthened. B. The scientific method was used to solve problems. C. Funding to education was increased by the English government. D. Interest in Greek and Roman drama was renewed. 5. During the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment, one similarity in the work of many scientists and philosophers was that they 27  A. relied heavily on the ideas of medieval thinkers B. favored an absolute monarchy as a way of improving economic conditions C. received support from the Catholic Church D. examined natural laws governing the universe 6. Where is Mesoamerica? A. the southern part of what is now Mexico and parts of the northern countries of Central America B. the central United States and the northern part of Mexico C. from present-day Panama to the southern end of the Amazon D. from the southeastern United States and encompassing the islands of the Caribbean 7. Their children are mandated to get education regardless of their social class, gender, or age. A. Mayans C. Incas B. Aztecs D. Egyptian 8. The first physician to conduct clinical trials. A. Ibn al-Haytham C. Muhammad ibn Musa al- Khwarizmi B. Jabir ibn Hayyan D. Ibn Sina 9. Which African country was known to be the center of alchemy? A. Egypt C. Swaziland B. Kenya D. Nigeria 10. Which Filipino scientist is responsible for inventing the meconium drug testing? A. Josefino Cacas Comiso C. Fabian Millar Dayrit B. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. D. Lilian Formalejo Patena 11. Which of the following is noted for his works on observing the characteristics of Antarctica by using satellite images? A. Ramon Cabanos Barba C. Josefino Cacas Comiso B. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz D. Gregory Ligot Tangonan 12. Which Filipino scientist is recognized internationally in the field of chemistry? A. Caesar A. Saloma C. Edgardo Gomez B. William Padolina D. Angel Alcala 13. Who is the Filipino scientist known internationally in the field of electrical engineering? A. Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. C. Fabian Millar Dayrit B. Rafel Dineros Guerrero III D. Mari-jo Panganiban Ruiz 114. A Filipino scientist known for being an outstanding educator and graph theorist. A. Jose Bejar Cruz Jr. C. Fabian Millar Dayrit B. Rafel Dineros Guerrero III D. Mari-jo Panganiban Ruiz 15. Which Filipino scientist is known for doing research on plant biotechnology? A. Lourdes Jansuy Cruz C. Enrique Mapua Ostrea Jr. B. Lilian Formalejo Patena D. Gregory Ligot Tangonan 16. Which is a science paradise for agriculture, forestry, plant and animal science, and veterinary science? A. UP – Los Baños C. UP – Manila B. UP – Diliman D. UP – Visayas 17. Which is a national center for marine science, fisheries, and other related sciences? A. UP – Los Baños C. UP – Manila 28  B. UP – Diliman D. UP – Visayas 18. Which is a center of excellence and has produced many researchers, doctors, health professionals, and scientists in the area of medical and public health? A. UP – Los Baños C. UP – Manila B. UP – Diliman D. UP – Visayas 19. Which university established a national science and engineering complex to develop more research and produce more scientists and engineers in the country? A. UP – Los Baños C. UP – Manila B. UP – Diliman D. UP – Visayas 20. Its vision is to develop Filipino science scholars with scientific minds and passion for excellence. A. Philippine Science High School System C. QC Regional Science High School B. Manila Science High School D. Central Visayan Institute Foundation 21. Which project aims to develop Filipino children equipped with scientific and technological knowledge, skills, and values? A. The Philippine-American Academy of Science and Engineering (PAASE, 2008) B. The Philippine-California Advanced Research Institutes (PICARI) Project C. The Special Science Elementary Schools (SSES) Project D. The National Research Council of the Philippines (NCRP) Project 22. It is a synthesis of classical and modern pedagogical theories adapted to foster the highest level of learning, creativity, and productivity. A. STEM C. Dynamic Learning Program B. Distance Learning Program D. Virtual Class Program 23. Which of the following is the concept of Indigenous Science? A. Science Process Skills C. Community Culture and Values B. Traditional Knowledge D. All of the above 24. Which of the following is NOT an example of indigenous knowledge? A. Preserving foods C. Predicting weather conditions B. Manufacturing iron D. Building local irrigation 25. Which of the following indigenous belief is not consistent to scientific attitudes? A. Motivating attitudes C. Cooperating attitudes B. Excruciating attitudes D. Practical attitude REFERENCE Science, Technology and Society by Serafica, Janice Patria Javier, Pawilen, Gred Tabios, Caslib Jr., Bernardo Nicolas and Alata, Eden Joy Pastor MODULE 2 29  SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIETY, AND HUMAN CONDITION TOPIC 1 HUMAN FLOURISHING 30 OVERVIEW Human flourishing is defined as being “good spirited” in the classical Aristotelian notion. Humans generally have notion on what it means to flourish; albeit in the advent of science and technology, they chose to hinge their ends alongside the latter’s results. While it is true that science equips its knowers some details about the world, its main claim to objectivity and systematic methodology is at the very least flawed. However, that does not stop institutions to favor those who excel in said discipline. Finally, the economic perception of enrichment, otherwise known as growth, is heavily fueled by technology and should be impeded. We have to rethink of our perception of a good life apart from one presented in this regard. OBJECTIVES At the end of this module, the students should be able to:  Identify different conceptions of human flourishing;  Determine the development of the scientific method and validity of science; and  Critic human flourishing vis-à-vis progress of science and technology to be able to define for themselves the meaning of a good life. COURSE MATERIALS 1. Science, Technology, and Human Flourishing  Every discovery, innovation, and success contributes to our pool of human knowledge. Perhaps, one of the most prevalent themes is human’s perpetual need to locate himself in the world by finding proofs to trace evolution.  The business of uncovering the secrets of the universe answers the question of our existence and provides us something to look forward to. Having a particular role, which is uniquely ours, elicits our idea of self-importance.  It is in this regard, human flourishing is deeply intertwined with goal setting relevant to science and technology. In this case, the latter is relevant as a tool in achieving the former or echoing Heidegger’s statement, technology is a human activity that we excel in as a result of achieving science.  The end goals are both science and technology and human flourishing are related, in that the good is inherently related to the truth. The following are two concepts about science which ventures its claim on truth. 2. Science as Method and Results 31   For the most part, science’s reputation stems from the objectivity brought upon by an arbitrary, rigid methodology whose very character absolves it from any accusation of prejudice. Such infamy effectively raised science in a pedestal untouchable by other institutions – its sole claim to reason and empiricism – gathering supporters who want to defend it and its ways.  In school, the scientific method is introduced in the earlier part of discussions. Even though the number of steps varies, it presents a general idea of how to do science: 1. Observe and determine if there are unexplained occurrences unfolding. 2. Determine the problem and identify factors involved. 3. Through past knowledge of similar instance, formulate hypothesis that could explain the said phenomenon. Ideally, the goal is to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis for the study “to count as significant” (can also be separated into additional steps such as “to generate prediction” or “to infer from past experiments”). 4. Conduct experiment by setting up dependent independent variables, and trying to see how independent ones affect dependent ones. 5. Gather and analyze results throughout and upon culmination of the experiment. Examine if the data gathered are significant enough to conclude results. 6. Formulate conclusion and provide recommendation in case others would want to broaden the study.  At least in the students’ formative years, the above routine is basic methodology when introducing them to experimentation and empiricism – two distinct features that give science edge over other schools of thought. Throughout the course of history, however, there exists heavy objections on the scientific procedure; the line separating science and the so-called pseudoscience becomes more muddled. 2.1. Verification Theory  The earliest criterion that distinguishes philosophy and science is verification theory. The idea proposes that a discipline is science if it can be confirmed or interpreted in the event of an alternative hypothesis being accepted. In that regard, said theory gives premium to empiricism and only takes into account those result which are measurable and experiments, which are repeatable.  This was espoused by a movement in the early twentieth century called the Vienna Circle, a group of scholars who believed that only those which can be observed should be regarded as meaningful and reject those which cannot be directly accessed as meaningless. Initially, this proved to be attractive due to general consensus from people, which happened to see for themselves how the experiment occurred, solidifying its validity and garnering supporters from esteemed figures. Its shortcomings, however, proved to be a somewhat too risky 32  – several budding theories that lack empirical results might be shot down prematurely, causing slower innovation and punishing ingenuity of newer, novel thoughts.  Celebrated discoveries in physics, for instance, are initially theorized without proper acknowledgement of their being. Einstein’s theory on the existence of gravitational waves would, following this thought, be dismissed due to lack of evidence almost a hundred years ago. Quantum mechanics would not have prospered if the scientific society during the time of Edwin Schrodinger did not entertain his outrageous thought that the cat in the box is both dead and alive, which can only be determined once you look in the box yourself.  Aside from above critique, this theory completely fails to weed our bogus arguments that explain things coincidentally. A classic example is astrology, whose followers are able to employ the verification method in ascertaining its reliability. The idea is that since one already has some sort of expectations on what to find, they will interpret events in line with said expectations. American philosopher Thomas Kuhn warned us against bringing the gap between evidence and theory by attempting to interpret the former according to our own biases, that is, whether or not we subscribe to the theory. Below is a short story illustrating this point: Suppose, for instance, this girl, Lea has a (not-so-scientific) theory that her classmate Ian like her. Good, she thought, I like him too. But how do I know that he likes me? She began by observing him and his interactions with her. Several gestures she noted include his always exchanging pleasantries with her whenever they bump into each other, his big smile when he sees her, and him going out of his way to greet her even when riding a jeepney. Through these observations, she was then able to conclude that Ian does like her because, she thought, why would anyone do something like that for a person he does not like? As it turns out, however, Ian is just generally happy to meet people he knew. He had known Lea since they were in first year and regards her as a generally okay person. It is no surprise then that upon learning that Ian basically does this to everyone, Lea was crushed. She vowed to herself that she would never assume again.  Based from above story, is it justified for Lea to think that Ian does not like her? Not quite. The next criterion also warns us about the danger of this view. 2.2. Falsification Theory 33   Perhaps the current prevalent methodology in science, falsification theory asserts that as long as an ideology is not proven to be false and can be explain a phenomenon over alternative theories, we should accept the said ideology.  Due to its hospitable character, the shift to this theory allowed emergence of theories otherwise rejected by verification theory. It does not promote ultimate adoption of one theory but instead encourages research in order to determine which among the theories can stand the test of falsification.  The strongest one is that which is able to remain upheld amidst various tests, while being able to make particularly risky predictions about the world. Karl Popper is the known proponent of this view. He was notorious for stating that up- and-coming theories of the time, such as Marx’s Theory of Social History and Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalysis, are not testable and thus not falsifiable, and subsequently questioning their status as scientific. Albeit majority of scientists nowadays are more inclined to be Popperian in their beliefs, this theory, similar to the theory above, presents certain dangers by interpreting an otherwise independent evidence in light of their pet theory. To illustrate, previous story is restated: Ian is generally everybody’s friend. He likes to be around people and generally aspires to become everybody’s friend. However. There is this one girl, Lea, who seemed to not like him when he is around. Every time he waves ate her, she turns away, and when they are in the same room, she avoids his glances. Through this, he concluded that Lea doesn’t like him and does his best to show her that he is not a threat. He began greeting her whenever they pass by each other at the corridor, even going so far as calling her attention when he was in the jeepney and saw her walking past. When they are able to talk with each other, he found out that Lea is just really shy and is not accustomed to people greeting her. He then was able to conclude that his initial impression of her not liking him (as a person) is wrong and thus said proposition is rejected.  Although there is no happy ending yet for Lea and Ian, we can thus see how in this case, falsification method is prone to the same generalizations committed by the verification method.  There is no known rule as to the number of instance that a theory is rejected or falsified in order for it to be set aside. Similarly, there is no assurance that observable event or “evidences” are indeed manifestations of a certain concept or “theories”. Thus, even though, theoretically, falsification method is more accepted, scientists are still not convinced that it should be regarded as what makes a discipline scientific. 3. Science as a Social Endeavor 34   Due to inconclusiveness of the methodologies previously cited, a new school of thought on the proper demarcation criterion of science emerged. Several philosophers such as Paul Thagard, Imre Lakatos, Helen Longino, David Bloor, and Richard Rorty, among others, presented an alternative demarcation that explores the social dimension of science and effectively, technology. Sciences cease to belong solely to gown-wearing, bespectacled scientists at laboratories.  The new view perpetuates a dimension which generally benefits the society. For instance, far-off places in South America where many of the tribes remain uncontacted, do not regard western science as their science. Whatever their science is, it can be ascertained that it is in no way inferior to that of globalized peoples’ science. Thus, it presents an alternative notion that goes beyond the boundaries of cold, hard facts of science and instead projects it in a different light, such as a manifestation of shared experience forging solidarity over communities. 4. Science and Result  People who do not understand science are won over when the discipline is able to produce results. Similar to when Jesus performed miracles and garnered followers, people are sold over the capacity of science to do stuff they cannot fully comprehend. In this particular argument, however, science is not the only discipline which is able to produce results – religion, luck, and human randomness are some of its contemporaries in the field. For some communities without access to science, they can turn to divination and superstition and still get the same results.  Science is not entirely foolproof, such that it is correct 100% of the time. Weather reports, for one, illustrate fallibility and limitations of their scope, as well as their inability to predict disasters. The best that can be done during an upcoming disaster is to reinforce materials to be more calamity proof and restore the area upon impact. It can be the n concluded that science does not monopolize the claim for definite results. 5. Science as Education  There is no such thing as a singular scientific method, offering instead a variety of procedures that scientists can experiment with to get results and call them science. Discoveries in physics, specifically in quantum mechanics, appeared to have debunked the idea of objectivity in reality, subscribing instead to alternative idea called intersubjectivity. With objectivity gone, it has lost its number one credence. Nevertheless, there still exists a repressing concept that comes about as a result of unjustified irreverence of science – our preference of science-inclined students over those which are less adept.  There are distinct portions in entrance exams in the secondary and tertiary levels that are dedicated to science and mathematics. In the Philippines, a large distribution of science high schools can be found all over the country, forging competition for aspiring 35  students to secure a slot and undergo rigorous science and mathematics training based on specialized curricula. Although arguable as these schools also take great considerations in providing holistic education by assuring that other non-science courses are covered, adeptness in science and mathematics are the primary condition to be admitted. This preference is also reflected on the amount of STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics)-offering schools accommodating Grades 11 and 12. Among all the clusters being offered, STEM trumps the remaining clusters in terms of popularity and distribution, with Accounting and Business coming in as a close second. One might infer that there are more demand in this field as students are preconditioned that the field would latter land them high-paying jobs and a lucrative career graduation.  The educational system can hone and preserve students’ capacity to entertain other options and decide for themselves the best among all presented. It will thus reinforce their imagination that allow some level of unorthodoxy, bringing forth novel discoveries that otherwise would not be considered had they stuck to the default methodology. Innovations are brought forth by the visionaries, not the prude legalists, and several notable figures in science even consider themselves as outsiders.  If one is really in pursuit of human flourishing, it would make sense for them to pursue it holistically. Simply mastering science and technology would be inadequate if we are to, say, socialize with people or ruminate on our inner self. Aristotle’s eudaimonic person is required to be knowledgeable about science, among other things of equal importance. They are supposed to possess intellectual virtues that will enable them to determine truth form falsehood or good reasoning from poor reasoning. A true eudaimon recognizes that flourishing requires one to excel in various dimensions, such as linguistic, kinetic, artistic, and socio-civic. Thus, he understands that he should not focus on one aspect alone. 6. How Much Is Too Much?  Economists believe that growth is the primary indicator of development, as both go hand in hand, and has put forth their resources in trying to achieve such. Technology has been a primary instrument in enabling them to pursue said goal, utilizing resources, machineries, and labor. What is missing in this equation is that growth presents an illusory notion of sustainability - the world’s resources can only provide so much, it cannot be expected to stretch out for everybody’s consumption over a long period of time. Moreover, growth is not infinite – there is no preordained ceiling once the ball starts rolling. If the MDG convention’s intent was to get everyone in the growth ship, that ship will surely sink before leaving the port. The same analogy applies to the capacity of nature to accommodate us, which Joseph Hickel contemplated on, suggesting that developed countries should not push forth more growth but instead adopt “de- development” policies or else, everybody loses. The rapid pace of technological growth allows no room for nature to recuperate, resulting in exploitation and irreversible damages to nature. Right now, we are experiencing repercussions of said exploits in the 36  hands of man-made climate change, which would snowball and affect majority of flora and fauna, driving half of the latter extinct in less than a hundred year from now. If this continues in its currently alarming rate, we might bring about our own extinction. 7. Additional Materials 1. Watch the video related to the topic. 1.1. Aristotle on Human Flourishing Watch: https://youtu.be/oCh407iUMuE 1.2. Karl Popper: The logic of Falsification Watch: https://youtu.be/XlFywEtLZ9w 1.3. Verification Principle Watch: https://youtu.be/381eZrBU86s ACTIVITIES 1. e-Portfolio Presentation: State a brief history or discovery that brought about the invention or discovery of the things stated below. State their contributions in our scientific development. a. Gravity b. Telescope c. Microscope d. Radio e. Processed Food f. Benzene Ring g. Large Hadron Collider h. Guns i. Internet j. Cellphones 2. Online mini-campaign advocacy: Determine the possible alternatives to growth and development. List down several ways to promote sustainable living and start a mini-campaign advocacy. 3. Assessment: Write a one or two-page analysis on the following. 3.1. Is our reverence of science justified? 3.2. Were we successful so far in trying to tie down technology with what we conceive as human flourishing? 3.3. What do you think constitutes human flourishing? REFERENCE Science, Technology and Society by Serafica, Janice Patria Javier, Pawilen, Gred Tabios, Caslib Jr., Bernardo Nicolas and Alata, Eden Joy Pastor TOPIC 2 37  TECHNOLOGY AS A WAY OF REVEALING OVERVIEW Science and technology has been part of human activity since the beginning of our species. It has aided us in survival and helped us outsmart our adversaries, provided us comfortable living, allowed us to explore the world, and assist us in discovering more about ourselves and the truth. However, it also leads us to a paradox in which we are only able to see the world in the lenses of technological innovations. In our pursuit of growth, we had conveniently forgotten that technology only presents one approach in viewing the world. This forgetfulness leads us to evaluate objects as consumable or not – transcending to other human beings, determining their capacity to be productive. Our valuation of things became one- dimensional, geared toward production of goods for consumption, which we believe would lead us to the good life. Advancements in the field expose us to previously unknown predicaments, effectively helping us to reveal our own natures and enforcing one perspective in finding the truth. OBJECTIVES: At the end of this module, the students should be able to:  Explain the concept of human condition before science technology;  Identify the change that happened in human condition after science and technology; and  Name ways on how technology aided in revealing the truth about the human being. COURSE MATERIALS 1. The Human Condition Before Common Era  Our early ancestors primal need to survive paved way for the invention of several developments. Humans are able to utilize abundant materials for their own ease and comfort. As it is difficult to pinpoint the particular period where technology is said to have started, one can say that at the very least, the motivation to make things easier has been around since humans are. Homo erectus have been using fire to cook, through chipping one flint over the other to produce a spark, all the while without realizing the laws of friction and heat. Tools from stone and flints marked the era of the Stone Age, during the advent of our very own Homo sapiens, and humans began to sharpen stones as one would a knife; an example of this is the simple machine called wedge.  This particular period proved to be difficult for our ancestors, but in a remarkably distinct way. There is little to no written accounts except for several cave drawings and unearthed artifacts from various parts of the world that narrate how their culture came to be. It then proves that there is little capacity for our ancestors to contemplate and 38  perceive things outside themselves in a more reflective manner. For instance, there are several excavations in different parts Europe of miniature statues prevalent during the Paleolithic period, the so-called “Venus” figure. It depicts a rudimentary carving of a voluptuous woman out of ivory or stone.  Soon enough, people discovered minerals and began forging metalwork. They realized that these substances are more durable, malleable, and have more luster than the previous material. Fur clothing and animal skin are primarily used for comfort against harsh winds. They begin to cover themselves up out of necessity, and gradually, added several more to their garments. Some of those found at excavation sites are reminiscent of early accessories, suggesting that our ancestors have been deeply engaged in the concept of beauty. Perhaps, they had taken a liking to a certain shiny stone, or a perfectly shaped bone, and wanted to wear it as trophy.  Excavations on the latter half of the Stone Age include several figures thought to be ceremonial, meaning, that perhaps people of the time had also painstakingly wrought and hewed said figures in honor of some deity. This notion, as it was then and as it is now, is often people’s resort to make sense of events happening outside their control. The initial roster of primitive gods includes objects they encounter through their day-to- day lives, so it is not surprising that different tribes may have different gods. Those who might have lived alongside majestic creatures, such as elephants and mammoths, might have been awed by their size and worshiped them as the owner of the land, asking for blessing in their hunting ground. On the contrary, they might have hunted the mammoths for their woolly coat and meat, taking down the animal for the entire community to eat. In windy places near mountains, they might have had a mountain god to explain wind currents and ask for provisions. On the other hand, those who were near coastal areas or bodies of water might have had water gods they referred to when asking for a good catch. However, it might be also the case that people of prior civilizations shared several generic gods, such as the sun.  Throughout the course of history, religion remains to be the strongest contender to science arguably due to its being the most easily grasped. Admittedly, once people stop connecting the dots between cause and effect, they turn to something that could possibly explain their inadequacies in making sense of the world. The people of yesterday appeared to have acknowledged early on that they could only do and understand as much, that perhaps other powers at play also existed alongside them. This notion effectively humbled and perhaps grounded them, with their constant befuddlement serving as an early reminder that they were way behind several larger, more powerful forces in nature in terms o