Chapter Notes on Social Research Methods PDF

**[CHAPTER 1: THE ART AND SCIENCE OR SOCIAL RESEARCH: AN INTRODUCTION ]** [SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: AN OVERVIEW ] **Sociological perspectives** encourage us to identify and understand the complex interconnections between the behavior of individuals and the structures of the societies in which th...

**[CHAPTER 1: THE ART AND SCIENCE OR SOCIAL RESEARCH: AN INTRODUCTION ]** [SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES: AN OVERVIEW ] **Sociological perspectives** encourage us to identify and understand the complex interconnections between the behavior of individuals and the structures of the societies in which they live. First, sociology emphasizes the importance of both agency and structure in shaping human behavior. Second, adopting a sociological imagination helps us understand that many seemingly "personal troubles" are actually symptoms of more sweeping "public issues" (Mills, 1959). Third, sociologists recognize that personal characteristics, such as race, ethnicity, social class, gender, and age, expose us to different structural opportunities as well as constraints. [AGENCY VS STRUCTURE] Our everyday lives are shaped by both agency and structure. **Agency** is our capacity to make our own choices and act independently. We may believe that we freely choose where we live, which college we attend, whom to fall in love with, what career path to pursue, and whether to see a doctor when we get sick. Yet sociologists recognize that these personal choices are influenced by **social structures**, the patterned social arrangements that may constrain (or facilitate) our choices and opportunities [ADOPTING A SOCIOLOGIAL IMAGINATION ] The sociological imagination enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and external career of a variety of individuals" That means we cannot understand human behavior merely by viewing individual actors as free agents who are disconnected from larger sociohistorical contexts. Rather, our biographies are a product of personal experiences and historical forces The sociological imagination teaches us that what we may think of as "personal troubles," such as opioid addiction, difficulty paying for college tuition, or struggling to balance paid work with childcare, may instead be "public issues," or widespread problems that have social roots and are shared by many others [ATTENTION TO DIFFERNCES AND HIERARCHIES ] One of the most important areas of inquiry in sociology is understanding the ways that social hierarchies of race, class, gender, age, and other axes of inequality affect our lives. Other scholars work in a tradition called intersectionality, which emphasizes that our overlapping identities and group memberships, such as being a middle-class black woman or working-class white man, are critical to our life experiences [HOW DOES SOCIOLOGY RESEMLE AND DIFFER FROM OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES] **Psychology** the study of individual behavior attitudes and emotions and their causes. History the study of past events precedence's social movements or cultural patterns. **Economics** the study of the production distribution and consumption of goods and services. **Political science** the study of the policies laws diplomacy and processes of government institutions political parties and political behavior. **Anthropology** the study of societies and cultures often non-western. [BASIC VS APPLIED RESEARCH ] Sociological research can be either basic or applied, which approach an investigator takes is closely tied to his or her research goals and intended audience. **Basic research** seeks to answer theoretically rich questions or to resolve a fundamental intellectual puzzle about social behavior. By stimulating new ways of thinking about a social issue, these pursuits may revolutionize how practitioners think about---and confront---a social problem **Applied research**, by contrast, seeks to answer a question in the real world or to address a concrete problem. [QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ] **Qualitative methods** typically collect and analyze data that enable rich description in words or images. The most common qualitative method in sociology is field research, including ethnography and in-depth interviewing. **Quantitative methods**, by contrast, rely on data that can be represented by and summarized into numbers. Survey research is the most widely used quantitative method in sociology, but social network analysis and experimental methods also generate numerical or statistical data that researchers can analyze In a **mixed-methods approach**, researchers use more than one method in a single study, as they believe that two different types or sources of information will reveal insights that would not have been uncovered using only one approach The use of multiple methods to study a single research question is also referred to as **triangulation**, meaning that a researcher can obtain a more detailed and clear understanding of their study topic by examining it from several different methodological perspectives. [CROSS SELECTIONAL VS LONGITUDINAL STUDY DESIGNS ] We can collect or use data obtained at *[one point in time]*, an approach referred to as a **cross-sectional study design** (Figure 1.3). This approach provides a snapshot of a particular population at a particular historical moment. Researchers can track social change by using a second approach, called a **repeated cross-sectional study design**, or *trend design*; by definition, this involves conducting a cross-sectional study at *[multiple points in time, where each snapshot captures a different cross section of people in, say, 1980, 2000, and 2020]*. A **panel design** tracks the *same individuals* at multiple points in time, these designs observe the same individuals at multiple points, such as interviewing a group of high school seniors in 2000 and then recontacting them in 2005, 2010, 2015, and so on. Whereas a **repeated cross-sectional design** typically captures *[different] individuals* at *[multiple points in time]*. [UNIT OF ANALYSIS ] A **unit of analysis** is simply the entity being studied. The most common is people, with researchers focusing on individual thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Other units of analysis might be families, high schools, corporations, religious congregations, cults, governments, counties, or nations Researchers must be mindful of mismatches between units of analysis, or using data from one type of unit to draw conclusions about another type of unit. **Ecological Fallacy** A mistake that researchers make by drawing conclusions about the micro level based on some macro-level analysis. [STARTING THE RESEARCH PROCESS: CHOOSING A QUESTION AND SETTING GOALS] The **scientific method** is the systematic process of asking questions and carrying out rigorous research to answer those questions. ICGAD ( I can't grab any dogs) 1. *Identify* an important question that needs an answer. 2. *Construct* a hypothesis, or prediction, about the answer to this question. 3. *Gather* data that allow the researcher to assess the accuracy of this prediction. 4. *Analyze* the data to determine whether the prediction is accurate. 5. *Draw* and report conclusions. [ASKING QUESTION ] The First and arguably most important step of the research process is asking a good question or posing important sociological puzzle three general conditions guide a social scientist formulation of their question its social importance scientific relevance in feasibility. **Social importance** refers to whether answering the research question will make a difference in the world will these findings lead to discoveries that might inform public policy or to help humankind. **Scientific relevance** refers to whether the study will resolve an important puzzle in sociology whether practical or theoretical. Finally, **feasibility** refers to whether the researcher can effectively carry out a rigorous a well designed study that answers the question in a timely and cost effective way. One other subtle consideration should guide a researcher's choice of a research question: the goal of being **value-free**, or objective, in how the question is framed. Researchers take great care to be objective when they carry out their work. As we shall soon learn, social scientists take many precautions to ensure that their research is unbiased, precise, subject to critical review, and free from any prejudices on the part of the investigator **Subjectivity** refers to the ways in which research is influenced by the perspectives, values, social experiences, and viewpoint of the researcher [RESEARCH GOALS: DESCRPITION EXPLORATION AND EXPLANATION] **Descriptive research** documents or describes trends, variations, and patterns of social phenomena. Description should be the first step a researcher takes when starting a project and generating questions. We must first understand *what* is happening before we can ask questions about *why* and *how* it is happening **Exploratory research,** by contrast, tends to answer questions of **how**, with the goal of documenting precisely how particular processes and dynamics unfold. **Explanatory research** is considered the highest and most sophisticated type of research. Explanatory research documents **the causes and effects** of social phenomena, thus addressing questions of ***why***. These questions might be: Why do women earn less than men even when they work in the same profession? or Why do some Americans vote for political candidates whose policy positions are not in their best interest? At the core of *why* questions are the goal of comparison, or trying to understand why two or more groups differ from one another along some outcome, **[CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH FOUNDATIONS: THINKNING SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY TO RESEARCH ]** [THEORY WITHIN THE SIENTIFIC METHOD] A scientific definition of **theory** is a sequential argument consisting of a series of logically related statements put forward to illuminate some element of social life. In social research, theory is explanation, developing a logical story for social phenomena. **Empiricism** refers to the idea that the world can be subjected to observation, or the use of the senses to gather data about social phenomena. Theory and empiricism are the key ingredients of the **scientific method,** which is the systematic process of asking and answering questions in a rigorous and unbiased way. It has five basic steps: The first two steps fall into the general category of theory, and the third and fourth steps fall into the general category of empiricism. The fifth step represents the integration of the two [PURPOSE OF THEORY ] **To describe.** Theory can capture the general elements of a complicated social phenomenon as a means of promoting understanding of how and why it occurs. **To explain.** Theory can articulate the processes through which a social phenomenon unfolds in order to pose hypotheses that can then be empirically tested. **To explore.** Theory can serve as a guide, helping researchers study social problems in a targeted way. Rather than directly generating or testing specific hypotheses, theory can point researchers to specific questions that need answers or angles that need to be considered. [LEVEL OF ABSTRACTION IN THEORY] The **macro level (states governments and populations)** is the "big picture"---the structure, composition, and processes of society. Thus, macro-oriented theory focuses on the largest collective units that make up society (for instance, societal institutions such as the educational system) or on societies as a whole At the opposite end of the continuum is the **micro level**, (individuals integrations and dyads( two elements together))which encompasses face-to-face interaction and small-group processes; it is all about what happens among people in intimate settings such as families. Micro-oriented theory typically focuses on interaction, communication, and relationships In the middle is the **meso level**. (groups, organizations) Much more focused than the macro level but on a broader scale than the micro level, the meso level encompasses what happens in physical settings and organizations (such as communities, churches, and the workplace) that link individuals to the larger society [COMMONALITIES AMOUNG THEORIES ] Most theories are **testable** that is, they can be qualitatively or quantitatively examined) and **falsifiable** (that is, they can be proved wrong). Most theories are also **generalizable**, meaning they can be applied to general classes of events rather than to only one event. Final theories should be **probabilistic**. They point to what is *likely* to happen rather than what will *certainly* happen. [INDUCTIVE RESEARCH ] An **inductive approach** refers to the process by which scientist draw a general understanding of some social phenomenon through specific empirical observations. inductive theorists begin [collecting data]---usually through direct observational methods such as ethnography. The work of Annette Lareau (2011), who spent many years observing the inner workings of American families, offers an excellent example of the inductive approach. [She did not begin her research with specific predictions of what she would find, but she was guided by two things:] (1) the concept of *cultural capital,* which refers to the nonmonetary assets that someone can use to get ahead (for example, knowledge of art and literature), and (2) past empirical findings about social class differences in parents' involvement in their children's education. [DEDUCTIVE APPROACH ] **A deductive approach** refers to the translation of [general theory] into specific empirical analysis. Working from a deductive perspective, researchers take what is already known about a social phenomenon and integrate it into a coherent argument that attempts to explain or make a prediction about that phenomenon in a way that can be tested empirically. The goal of a deductive approach is to guide empirical activities. [PARADIGMS ] One major influence on the development and use of theory is the **paradigm**, which is a broad set of taken-for-granted and often unacknowledged assumptions about how social reality is to be defined. [SELECTED SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGMS] **Structural Functionalism**: is a **macro** theory that looks at how all structures or institutions in [society work together.] **Symbolic Interactionism** a **micro**-level theory that focuses on meanings attached to human interaction, both verbal and non-verbal, and to symbols. (HOW DOES IT PLAY OUT IN FACE TO FACE INTERACTIOSN) **Conflict** The **macro**-level conflict perspective associated with Karl Marx contends that the struggle between the [powerful and the less powerful] is the key element in understanding society. (DOES IT GIVE SOME GROUP ADVANTAGES OVER OTHERS) [ ] **Rational Choice** - Targeting the **macro and micro levels as well as the meso level** that connects them, the rational choice paradigm applies economic principles to social life. [CONCEPT] Concepts are assembled together to make a theory. A **concept** is an idea that can be named, defined, and measured in some way*.* Poverty and love are concepts. [RELATIONS AMOUNG CONCEPTS] Theory is usually about the connections among concepts, **Positive Relation** When two concepts are positively (or directly) related, an increase in one goes along with an increase in the other---they move in the same direction. **Negative Relation** When concepts are negatively (or inversely) related, an increase in one goes along with a decrease in the other---they move in opposite directions, In **mediation**, the expected relation between two concepts is channeled through a third concept linking them together. In **moderation**, the strength of the relation between two concepts is expected to be weaker or stronger because of a *[third concept]*. That third concept could make those two concepts appear to be very closely related or not related at all. In **spuriousness**, the relation between two concepts is complicated by a **confound**, or a third concept that mxakes the other two appear to be related even when they are not. Theories are built by linking concepts together in systematic ways. Two concepts can be positively (or directly) or negatively (or inversely) related. Mediation, moderation, and spuriousness are ways of characterizing expected relations between three or more concepts **Literature Review** to gain an understanding of the existing research and debates relevant to a particular topic or area of study, and to present that knowledge in the form of a written report. [GOALS, HYPOTHESES AND QUESTIONS ] The **hypothesis** guides actual research in the deductive process, and tests of hypotheses are common in quantitative studies such as experiments or survey research. There are several types of hypotheses. One **important** thing to know about [hypotheses is that they are always written as statements, not questions. ] A **hypothesis of difference** makes a testable statement about [group differences] A **hypothesis of association** deals with concepts that go together in some way, without an explicit specification of cause and effect. A **causal hypothesis** is a prediction about cause and effect within an association of difference. [MEASUREMENT OF THE ELEMENTS OF THEORY] **Conceptualization** (how variables are defined by or for theory) and **operationalization** (how variables are measured for observation or through observation), **[CHAPTER 4: FROM CONCPETS TO MODELS: HYPOTHESES, OPERATIONALIZATION, AND MEASUREMENT ]** [WHICH COMES FIRST, CONCEPUALIZATION OR OPERATIONALIZATION ] Conceptualization and operationalization go together; one would be worthless without the other. [CONCEPTUALIZATION ] Conceptualization means defining terms and concepts clearly and precisely. [CONEPTS ANF VARIABLES] **Concepts** are highly abstract ideas that summarize social phenomena and are linked together within hypotheses [UNIT OF ANALYSIS] **Units of analysis** include the *individual* (for example, adolescents), *group* (for example, friendship cliques), *organization or institution* (for example, schools), and *society* Another unit of analysis, social artifacts, encompasses aspects of social life that can be counted. Some **social artifacts** are concrete things, such as newspaper articles, tombstones, or text messages. [DIMENSIONS] General concepts often encompass multiple **dimensions**, or components that represent different manifestations, angles, or units of the concept. Some concepts have too many dimensions to be practical. Because designing and implementing studies requires a more focused approach, a researcher must determine which dimension of the concept is of greatest relevance to the study. A discussion of dimensions touches on different ways to slice a concept, different ways of conceptually defining it. [TYPES OF VARIABLES] **Nominal Variables** nominal variables are variables that represent different groups or [without] a specific order or ranking the categories have names or labels and there is no inherent value or hierocracy among them. - **Examples** hair colour black and brown and red simply distinguish different hair colour categories without any ranking order. Religion categories might include Christianity Islam Hinduism Buddhism and atheism no rank order is employed **[Ordinal Variables]** ordinal variables represent categories with a *distinct and meaningful order* these variables can be ranked but it\'s impossible to quantify the exact difference between each rank. - **Example** educational level typical categories may include elementary middle high school college and postgraduate Socioeconomic status this could be categorized into low-income middle income and high income. **Interval variables** have values that are ordered and have a consistent quantifiable difference between them, but they do not have a true 0 point this means that while differences between values can be meaningfully measured ratios between them cannot be accurately determined - **Example** temperature scales **[Ratio variables]** are quantitate and possesses all the properties of interval variables but additionally have a true zero point - **Example** height measurement of height in units such as centimeters or inches is a ratio variable O height indicates no height. Income and individuals' income is typically racial variable with income we understand that the zero point signifies an absence of income [OPERATIONALIZATION] Once each component of a hypothesis (or statement of expected findings) has a conceptual definition, those definitions need to be measured through observation. (also known as operationalization) **Operationalization** identifies a plan for the concrete and systematic measurement of a variable. Operationalization involves two steps: (1) converting a conceptual definition into an operational definition that sets the parameters for measurement, and (2) using the operational definition to collect data [MISMATCHES BETWEEN UNITS OF ANALYSIS: ECOLOGICAL FALLACIES AND REDUCTIONISM] **Ecological fallacy** A mistake that researchers make by drawing conclusions about the micro level based on some macro-level analysis. Another problem, the reverse of the ecological fallacy, is **reductionism,** which occurs when conclusions are made about the macro-level unit on the basis of analyses of micro-level data. [REPORTS ] **Reports** are direct feedback, written or verbal, from people. The most common type is *self-report,* when the subject of a study provides information to the researcher. In *other-report*, someone besides the subject, such as a parent, teacher, or physician, provides information about that subject. In **open-ended questions**, subjects are free to say as much or as little as they want and to provide answers in their own words. **Closed-ended questions** allow for only specific responses. In some cases, closed-ended questions have no preset responses but, by virtue of the question, constrain responses. virtue of the question, constrain responses. For example, an interviewer may ask "Are you currently legally married?" [TYPES OF RESPONSE CATEGORIES ] [MANIPULATION ] **Manipulation** is usually paired with other forms of measurement during experiments. Rather than independently counting or evaluating reports, observations, or artifacts, experimenters need to "**do something"** to subjects and observe the results. For example, they might attempt to change attitudes, behaviors, or knowledge by asking subjects to read something, having them interact with others in a controlled setting, teaching them some skill, or exposing them to some event. [ASSESING MESUREMANT: REALIABILTY AND VAILIDY ] Two standards are crucial to understanding the match between conceptual and operational definitions: reliability and validity. In brief, **reliability** refers to how dependable a measure is. When a measure is reliable, it will consistently yield the same results no matter how many times it is given to the same samples. **Validity** refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measure. When a measure is valid, it adequately captures the conceptualization of some variable. **[CHAPTER 5: EVALATING RESEARCH: RELIABILITY AND VALIIDITY ]** **Reliability** refers to dependability, consistency, and predictability, or how consistently the same operation yields the same results. **Validity** is about the truth or accuracy of results The classic way to illustrate the differences between reliability and validity is to use a bullseye (Figure 5.1). Person 1 is valid but not reliable. She has gotten close to the bullseye but not consistently. Person 2 is reliable but not valid. All of his shots cluster tightly together but are not near the bullseye. Person 3 is valid and reliable. [PRECISION IN DEISIGN ] **Precision** is a key element of measurement that supports reliability. The more detailed and precise the measures are, the more reliable they tend to be. [TESTING ROBUSTINESS] Clear and precise conceptualization is perhaps the best way to improve reliability in data collection and measurement, regardless of the method used. Another strategy to improve reliability is to assess **robustness**; that is, how well the *[operational protocol]* is working. Operational Protocol refers to a set of procedures that are followed in order to achieve a spefice goal The **split-half method** is appropriate when dealing with a measure consisting of *[multiple items,]* The researcher randomly splits the set of items for a measure into two sets to create *[two separate measures instead of one]*. These two measures are then tested in a sample of individuals---the *same* people respond to each of the items in the first measure and then respond to each of the items in the second. Comparing how the same people respond to the two measures gives some idea of how reliable the overall measure would be. A reliable measure would mean that the average scores for each measure were similar. An approach similar to the split-half method is the **test-retest method**, in which the same measure is administered to a sample and then readministered to the same sample later Lastly, **pilot testing** involves administering some version of a measurement protocol (a survey, an experiment, an interview) to a *[small preliminary sample]* of subjects as a means of assessing how well the measure works and whether it presents any problems that need to be fixed. After the pilot test, researchers can make any necessary corrections before "officially" administering the measure to a large sample. [INTERNAL VALIDTY: DIMENSIONS OF INTERNAL VALIDITY OF MEASURES ] A screenshot of a white and blue questionnaire Description automatically generated with medium confidence**Internal Validity of a Measure** refers to the degree to which a measure truly and accurately measures the defined concepts. **External validity** is the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized, or applied, beyond the study. **[Face Validity]**: literally, whether something looks valid on the face of it. What is its face value?  whether a test [appears] to measure what it\'s supposed to measure. **[Criterion-Related Validity]** assesses the validity of a measure according to how closely it is associated with some other factor. Essentially, we gain confidence in the validity of a measure when it is related to things to which it is supposed to be related and when it is unrelated to things to which it should not be related. evaluates how accurately a test measures the [outcome] it was designed to measure **[Content Validity:]** Is all about coverage or how well a measure is encompassing the many different meanings of a single concept evaluates how well an instrument (like a test) covers [all relevant parts] of the construct it aims to measure.  **[Construct validity]** refers to how well multiple indicators are connected to some underlying factor. how well a test measures the concept it was designed to evaluate. **[CHAPTER 6: SAMPLING STRAEGIES ]** **[Sample:]** a subset of a population selected for a study. **Sampling** is the process of deciding what or whom to observe when we cannot observe everything or everyone, we want to When we cannot observer everything being strategic and methodical about what we observe is better than simply collecting the most information we can The best sampling strategy depends on the research question and available resources, including money, time, and personal. [A CAUTIONARY TALE: THE LITERARY DIGEST POLL] Literary Digest was one of the most popular magazines of its day and in 1920 it began to feature in which it send postcards to a sample of Americans later that year. At the time, there was no national polling organizations, and the results of the Literary Digest poll were eagerly received. - The 1936 election pitted incumbent president Franklin D. Roosevelt against Alf Landon - *The **[poll]** correctly predicted who would be elected president in 1920.* - *Results: Landon was going to be the next precedent.* - *Than came the actual: Not only did **Roosevelt win** he won with larger share of the vote* *What went wrong: there were 2 major problems. First the magazine obtained addresses from lits of people who owned automobile and telephones which at the time were luxuries Roosevelt support was much stronger among poorer Americans than among weather. Second people unhappy with Roosevelt presidency were more motivated to send back their postcard that those who were satisfied.* *The Literary Digest poll was disastrous because the people in the sample were wealthier and more dissatisfied with President Roosevelt than the people not in the sample.* ***[PROBABILITY SAMPLES AND RANDOM CHOICE ]*** When the goal of sampling is to describe a population there should be no systematic differences between the people who are selected for the sample and the people who are not selected for the sample. Samples that are based on random selection are called **probability samples:** (a) random chance is used to select participants for the sample and (b) each individual has a probabilistic of being selected that can be calculated **[TARGET POPULATIONS, PARAMETERS AND CENSUSES ]** a **target population** is a group about which social scientists attempt to make generalizations - Example: for a poll result about how many American adults support the legalization of marijuana the target population is all American adults. A **census** is a study that includes data on every member of a population **Population parameter** a number that characterizes some quantitative aspect of a population. **[ADVANTAGES OF PROBILITY SAMPLING ]** **Non-probability sampling** is a method of selecting units from a population using a subjective (influenced by personal feelings/opinions method. *The type of sample where a researcher selected the sample that requires the least time or efforts is called **convenience sample**.* A probability sample has two key advantages over non probability sample 1\. estimate based on probability sample are **unbiased** that is to whatever extent estimates differ from the true population perimeter their equally likely to overestimate it as they are to underestimate it 2\. In a probability sample the only difference between the estimates and the true perimeter is due to chance the difference is called **sampling error** when sampling error alone is responsible for differences between sample estimates population para meters, we can make precise statements about our uncertainties **[MARGIN OF ERROR]** ***[CHAPTER 3: ETHICAL ISSUES IN SOCIAL SCINES RESEARCH]*** *Research is a social process that always involves ethical choices how you frame your study whom you sample how you collect data how you analyze it how you store your data after you analyze it how you present your results and how your results are used in the real world.* *[DEFINING RESEARCH ETHICS ]* *whenever you conduct research with human subjects you must consider whether your research is ethical the dictionary defines ethics as the moral system that determines whether actions are right or wrong good or bad. Rather than being right or wrong research may have unforeseen consequences that harm individuals or damaged social trust in the community or the public beliefs in the integrity of scientific research.* *One does not have to be a bad or evil person to perform unethical research.* *Scientists rely on three ethical principles to guide their research these three principles are described in the Belmont report of 1979. The Belmont report forms the foundation of our national system designed to protect humans who take part in medical or social science research.* *The three principles outlined in the Belmont report are respect beneficence and justice.* 1. *Respect means that people are are to be treated as anonymous agents they have a right to decide whether they will take part in a research study respect also means that individuals with diminish autonomy children people with megalis abilities or suffering from diminished this is you making capacity in receive protection in the decision making process.* 2. *Beneficence refers to the responsibility to be good to minimize benefits for science for humanity and the research subjects and to prevent research subjects from suffering any harm as a result of the research* 3. *justice requires that the risk potential benefits of the research be distributed equally among subjects.* *These three ethical principles guide the establishment of norms and legal requirements for conducting research that all social scientists must follow the main mechanism for ensuring these protections is the requirement of voluntary **informed consent.** Individuals must have the freedom to say yes or no to being part of a research project and they must have all the possible benefits and risks of participation explained to them before they consent to participate.* *Informed consent also means that no one can be coherent or forced to take part in a research project. In the case of vulnerable populations who cannot give formed consent due to age or diminished mental capacity special protections must be put in place for instance parents must give informed consent for their children to be part of a research study. In the **United states institutional review boards** (IRBS) ensure that research adheres to all these principles are.* *[EXPERIMENTS IN TORTURE AT NAZI CONCENTRATION CAMPS ]* *One Nazi doctor Sigmund rascher conducted freezing experienced with 300 prisoners at the concentration camp in order to learn the most effective ways to treat German pilots suffering from hypothermia. Some prisoners were submerged in tops of ice water for up to five hours while others were taken outside and strapped down naked or the researcher monitored their heart rate muscle control temperature until they lost consciousness 8 prisoners died in the experiment.* - *The revelations in these trials led to the development of the **Nuremberg Code** in 1947. This code is stablished the principles that experiments should never be designed to harm participants and that people must consent to take part in experiments and have the right to withdraw whenever they choose and without penalty. It also established the principle of risk versus benefit analysis to determine whether an experiment should be allowed. In short the potential harms to research subjects must be weighed against the potential benefits of the research.* *TUSKEGREE EXPERIMENT* *The US public health service conducted a long running study of syphilis among poor African American men in the beginning of 1932 nearly 400 men with advanced syphilis were recruited for this study along with a comparison group of 201 non infected man when the study began there was no cure for syphilis and the purpose of the study was towards the disease unfold until autopsy. In the 1940s antibiotics were discovered that could cure the disease but none of the men was informed about or treated with the drugs they were deliberately deceived about the nature of the study and they were subjected to painful procedures such as spinal tabs.* *[THE WICHITA JURY TRIAL]* *In 1955 researchers at the University of Chicago conducted a study in which they secretly tape jury deliberations in Kansas in order to learn whether showmanship by lawyers unduly influences juries they presented their findings to academic audiences and gradually the local and national press found out the public outcry led to congressional hearings if juries could not be sure doctor deliberations were private the argument went no defendant in United States could ever be guaranteed a fair trial Congress eventually passed the law bearing the recording of jury deliberations.* *[THE MILGRAM OBEDIENCE EXPERIMENT ]* *In the 1950s Stanley milgram a psychology professor at Yale University wondered how ordinary people could have taken part in Nazi atrocities. He wanted to understand how people could follow the orders of authority figures even when they thought what they were doing was wrong. He designed a laboratory study that involved deception subjects were told that the study was about the effects of punishment on learning the subjects were to be the teachers and they would have to administer electric shocks to learners who did not answer questions correctly.* - *Unbeknownst to the subjects the learners were laboratory personnel who were pretending to be study participants the subject believed they were actually administrating shocks of higher and higher voltage each time the learner answered incorrectly.* - *Many of the subjects became very distressed and tried to stop administrating shocks but the experimenter told them in a calm yet very authorative voice the experiment must continues more than half of the research subjects administered shocks they thought were high intensity and potentially lethal to the learners after the experiment was completed the subjects were told that they had not hurt anyone and that they have been deceived about the study\'s real purpose.* *[TEAROOM TRADE]* *[THE INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD SYSTEM.]* *[HOW THE IRB WORKS]* *[PRIVACY AND CONFIDENTIALITY]* *[THE CHALLENGES OF DIGITAL DATA]* *[DECEPTION IN RESEARCH ]* - *Social Scientists disagree on whether deception should ever be permitted in research.* - *When research involves deception, subjects must be debriefed at the end of the study.* *[CONFLICT OF INTEREST ]* -