The Basics of Social Research PDF

 THE BASICS OF SOCIAL...

 THE BASICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  A Note from the Author Writing is my joy, sociology my passion. I delight in putting words together in a way that makes people learn or laugh or both. Sociology shows up as a set of words, also. It represents our last, best hope for planet-training our race and finding ways for us to live together. I feel a special excitement Earl Babbie at being present when sociology, at last, comes into focus as an idea whose time has come. I grew up in small-town Vermont and New Hampshire. When I announced I wanted to be an auto-body mechanic, my teacher, like my dad, told me I should go to college instead. When young Malcolm Little announced he wanted to be a lawyer, his teacher told him a “colored boy” should be something more like a carpenter. The difference in our experiences says something powerful about the idea of a level playing field. The inequalities among ethnic groups run deep, as Malcolm X would go on to point out. I ventured into the outer world by way of Harvard, the U.S. Marine Corps, UC Berkeley, and 12 years teaching at the University of Hawaii. I resigned from teaching in 1980 and wrote full time for seven years, until the call of the classroom became too loud to ignore. For me, teaching is like playing jazz. Even if you perform the same number over and over, it never comes out the same way twice and you don’t know exactly what it’ll sound like until you hear it. Teaching is like writing with your voice. After some 20 years of teaching at Chapman University in southern California, I have now shifted my venue by moving to Arkansas and getting a direct experience of southern/midwestern life. When that’s balanced by periodic returns to my roots in Vermont, I feel well-rounded in my sociological experiences. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  SEVENTH EDITION THE BASICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH EARL BABBIE Chapman University Australia Brazil Mexico Singapore United Kingdom United States Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions, some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for materials in your areas of interest. Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product text may not be available in the eBook version. Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  The Basics of Social Research, © 2017, 2014 Cengage Learning Seventh Edition WCN: 02-300 Earl Babbie ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. 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To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com. Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred online store www.cengagebrain.com. Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage Learning 2017 Printed in the United States of America Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  To Evelyn Fay Babbie and Henry Robert Babbie Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents in Brief PA r t ONe An Introduction to Inquiry 1 Human Inquiry and Science 1 2 Paradigms, Theory, and Research 30 3 The Ethics and Politics of Social Research 60W O PA r t t WO the Structuring of Inquiry 4 Research Design 89 5 Conceptualization, Operationalization, and Measurement 125 6 Indexes, Scales, and Typologies 159 7 The Logic of Sampling 190 PA r t t Hr ee Modes of Observation 8 Experiments 232 9 Survey Research 254 10 Qualitative Field Research 295 11 Unobtrusive Research 331 12 Evaluation Research 361 PA r t F O Ur Analysis of Data 13 Qualitative Data Analysis 390 14 Quantitative Data Analysis 422 15 Reading and Writing Social Research 447 Appendixes A Using the Library 474 B Random Numbers 481 C Distribution of Chi Square 483 D Normal Curve Areas 485 e Estimated Sampling Error 486 vii Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents Preface xix CHAPter A Letter to Students from This Book xxv 2 Paradigms, theory, and research 30 PAr t ONe What do you think? 31 An Introduction to Inquiry Introduction 31 Some Social Science Paradigms 33 CHAPter Macrotheory and Microtheory 34 1 Human Inquiry and Science 1 Early Positivism 34 Conflict Paradigm 35 What do you think? 2 Symbolic Interactionism 35 Introduction 2 Ethnomethodology 36 Looking for reality 3 Structural Functionalism 37 Knowledge from Agreement Reality 3 Feminist Paradigms 38 Ordinary Human Inquiry 4 Critical Race Theory 39 Tradition 5 Rational Objectivity Reconsidered 40 Authority 5 two Logical Systems revisited 43 Errors in Inquiry and Some Solutions 6 The Traditional Model of Science 43 the Foundations of Social Science 8 Deduction and Induction Compared 46 Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief 8 Deductive theory Construction 51 Social Regularities 8 Getting Started 51 Aggregates, Not Individuals 12 Constructing Your Theory 52 Concepts and Variables 13 An Example of Deductive Theory: Distributive The Purposes of Social Research 17 Justice 52 The Ethics of Human Inquiry 20 Inductive theory Construction 54 Some Dialectics of Social research 20 An Example of Inductive Theory: Why Do People Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanation 20 Smoke Marijuana? 54 Inductive and Deductive Theory 22 the Links Between theory and research 55 Determinism versus Agency 23 the Importance of theory in the “real Qualitative and Quantitative Data 24 World” 56 The Research Proposal 26 research ethics and theory 57 What do you think? REVISITED 26 What do you think? REVISITED 57 Main Points 27 Main Points 58 Key Terms 28 Key Terms 59 Proposing Social Research: Introduction 28 Proposing Social Research: Theory 59 Review Questions 29 Review Questions 59 ix Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. x Contents CHAPter Units of Analysis 99 3 the ethics and Politics of Social Individuals 100 Groups 100 research 60 Organizations 101 What do you think? 61 Social Interactions 101 Social Artifacts 101 Introduction 61 Units of Analysis in Review 103 ethical Issues in Social research 62 Faulty Reasoning about Units of Analysis: Voluntary Participation 63 The Ecological Fallacy and Reductionism 104 No Harm to the Participants 64 the time Dimension 106 Anonymity and Confidentiality 67 Cross-Sectional Studies 107 Deception 69 Longitudinal Studies 107 Analysis and Reporting 72 Approximating Longitudinal Studies 111 Institutional Review Boards 72 Examples of Research Strategies 112 Professional Codes of Ethics 74 Mixed Modes 113 two ethical Controversies 77 Trouble in the Tearoom 77 How to Design a research Project 114 Observing Human Obedience 78 Getting Started 116 Conceptualization 116 the Politics of Social research 80 Choice of Research Method 117 Objectivity and Ideology 80 Operationalization 117 Politics with a Little “p” 84 Population and Sampling 117 Politics in Perspective 85 Observations 118 What do you think? REVISITED 86 Data Processing 118 Main Points 87 Analysis 118 Key Terms 87 Application 118 Proposing Social Research: Ethical Issues 87 Research Design in Review 119 Review Questions 88 the research Proposal 120 Elements of a Research Proposal 120 PAr t t WO What do you think? REVISITED 121 the Structuring of Inquiry the ethics of research Design 122 Main Points 122 CHAPter Key Terms 123 Proposing Social Research: Design 123 4 research Design 89 Review Questions 124 What do you think? 90 Answers to Units of Analysis Quiz, Review Question #2 124 Introduction 91 three Purposes of research 91 Exploration 92 CHAPter Description 92 5 Conceptualization, Explanation 93 Operationalization, Idiographic explanation 93 and Measurement 125 the Logic of Nomothetic explanation 95 Criteria for Nomothetic Causality 95 What do you think? 126 Nomothetic Causal Analysis and Hypothesis Introduction 126 Testing 97 Measuring Anything that exists 127 False Criteria for Nomothetic Causality 97 Conceptions, Concepts, and Reality 128 Necessary and Sufficient Causes 97 Concepts as Constructs 129 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents xi Conceptualization 130 Scale Construction 180 Indicators and Dimensions 131 Bogardus Social Distance Scale 180 The Interchangeability of Indicators 133 Thurstone Scales 181 Real, Nominal, and Operational Definitions 133 Likert Scaling 182 Creating Conceptual Order 135 Semantic Differential 182 An Example of Conceptualization: Guttman Scaling 183 The Concept of Anomie 136 typologies 186 Definitions in Descriptive and explanatory What do you think? REVISITED 187 Studies 138 Main Points 188 Operationalization Choices 139 Key Terms 188 Range of Variation 139 Proposing Social Research: Composite Variations between the Extremes 140 Measures 188 A Note on Dimensions 141 Review Questions 189 Defining Variables and Attributes 141 Levels of Measurement 142 Single or Multiple Indicators 146 CHAPter Some Illustrations of Operationalization 7 the Logic of Sampling 190 Choices 147 Operationalization Goes On and On 148 What do you think? 191 Criteria of Measurement Quality 149 Introduction 191 Precision and Accuracy 149 A Brief History of Sampling 193 Reliability 149 President Alf Landon 193 Validity 152 President Thomas E. Dewey 194 Who Decides What’s Valid? 154 Two Types of Sampling Methods 195 Tension between Reliability and Validity 155 Nonprobability Sampling 195 the ethics of Measurement 156 Reliance on Available Subjects 195 What do you think? REVISITED 156 Purposive or Judgmental Sampling 196 Main Points 157 Snowball Sampling 196 Key Terms 158 Quota Sampling 197 Proposing Social Research: Measurement 158 Selecting Informants 198 Review Questions 158 the Logic and techniques of Probability Sampling 199 Conscious and Subconscious Sampling Bias 200 CHAPter Representativeness and Probability 6 Indexes, Scales, of Selection 201 and typologies 159 Random Selection 203 Probability Theory, Sampling Distributions, What do you think? 160 and Estimates of Sampling Error 203 Introduction 160 Populations and Sampling Frames 211 Indexes versus Scales 161 Review of Populations and Sampling Frames 215 Index Construction 163 types of Sampling Designs 216 Item Selection 164 Simple Random Sampling 216 Examination of Empirical Relationships 164 Systematic Sampling 217 Index Scoring 169 Stratified Sampling 219 Handling Missing Data 172 Implicit Stratification in Systematic Index Validation 176 Sampling 221 The Status of Women: An Illustration of Index Illustration: Sampling University Students 222 Construction 178 Sample Modification 222 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xii Contents Multistage Cluster Sampling 222 ChaPTER Multistage Designs and Sampling Error 223 9 Survey Research 254 Stratification in Multistage Cluster Sampling 226 Probability Proportionate to Size (PPS) What do you think? 255 Sampling 226 Introduction 255 Disproportionate Sampling and Weighting 227 Topics appropriate for Survey Research 256 Probability Sampling in Review 229 Guidelines for asking Questions 256 The Ethics of Sampling 229 Choose Appropriate Question Forms 257 What do you think? REVISITED 229 Make Items Clear 258 Main Points 230 Avoid Double-Barreled Questions 258 Key Terms 231 Respondents Must Be Competent Proposing Social Research: Sampling 231 to Answer 258 Review Questions 231 Respondents Must Be Willing to Answer 258 Questions Should Be Relevant 259 Short Items Are Best 259 PaR T T hR EE Avoid Negative Items 259 Modes of Observation Avoid Biased Items and Terms 260 Questionnaire Construction 261 ChaPTER General Questionnaire Format 261 8 Experiments 232 Formats for Respondents 261 Contingency Questions 262 What do you think? 233 Matrix Questions 263 Ordering Items in a Questionnaire 264 Introduction 233 Questionnaire Instructions 264 Topics appropriate for Experiments 233 Pretesting the Questionnaire 265 The Classical Experiment 234 A Sample Questionnaire 265 Independent and Dependent Variables 234 Self-administered Questionnaires 268 Pretesting and Posttesting 235 Mail Distribution and Return 268 Experimental and Control Groups 236 Monitoring Returns 269 The Double-Blind Experiment 237 Follow-Up Mailings 270 Selecting Subjects 238 Response Rates 270 Probability Sampling 238 Compensation for Respondents 271 Randomization 239 A Case Study 272 Matching 239 Interview Surveys 273 Matching or Randomization? 240 The Role of the Survey Interviewer 273 Variations on Experimental Design 241 General Guidelines for Survey Interviewing 274 Preexperimental Research Designs 241 Coordination and Control 276 Validity Issues in Experimental Research 242 Telephone Surveys 277 Examples of Experimentation 246 Positive and Negative Factors 278 Web-Based Experiments 248 Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing “Natural” Experiments 248 (CATI) 279 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Experimental Response Rates in Interview Surveys 280 Method 250 Online Surveys 280 Ethics and Experiments 250 Online Devices 281 Instrument Design 282 What do you think? REVISITED 251 Improving Response Rates 283 Main Points 251 Key Terms 252 Mixed-Mode Surveys 284 Proposing Social Research: Experiments 252 Comparison of the Different Survey Review Questions 253 Methods 285 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents xiii Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Content Analysis 333 research 286 Topics Appropriate for Content Analysis 333 Secondary Analysis 288 Sampling in Content Analysis 334 Coding in Content Analysis 338 ethics and Survey research 291 Illustrations of Content Analysis 342 What do you think? REVISITED 291 Strengths and Weaknesses of Content Main Points 292 Analysis 343 Key Terms 293 Analyzing existing Statistics 344 Proposing Social Research: Survey Research 293 Durkheim’s Study of Suicide 344 Review Questions 294 The Consequences of Globalization 346 CHAPter Units of Analysis 346 Problems of Validity 347 10 Qualitative Field research 295 Problems of Reliability 347 Sources of Existing Statistics 348 What do you think? 296 Comparative and Historical research 350 Introduction 296 Examples of Comparative and Historical topics Appropriate for Field research 297 Research 351 Special Considerations in Qualitative Field Sources of Comparative and Historical Data 354 research 300 Analytic Techniques 355 The Various Roles of the Observer 300 Unobtrusive Online Research 357 Relations to Subjects 302 ethics and Unobtrusive Measures 358 Some Qualitative Field research What do you think? REVISITED 359 Paradigms 304 Main Points 359 Naturalism 305 Key Terms 360 Ethnomethodology 306 Proposing Social Research: Unobtrusive Grounded Theory 308 Measures 360 Case Studies and the Extended Case Method 310 Review Questions 360 Institutional Ethnography 312 Participatory Action Research 313 Conducting Qualitative Field research 316 CHAPter Preparing for the Field 316 12 evaluation research 361 Qualitative Interviewing 318 Focus Groups 321 What do you think? 362 Recording Observations 323 Introduction 362 Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative topics Appropriate for evaluation Field research 326 research 364 Validity 326 Formulating the Problem: Issues Reliability 327 of Measurement 365 ethics in Qualitative Field research 328 Specifying Outcomes 366 What do you think? REVISITED 328 Measuring Experimental Contexts 367 Main Points 329 Specifying Interventions 368 Key Terms 329 Specifying the Population 368 Proposing Social Research: Field Research 329 New versus Existing Measures 368 Review Questions 330 Operationalizing Success/Failure 370 types of evaluation research Designs 371 CHAPter Experimental Designs 371 11 Unobtrusive research 331 Quasi-Experimental Designs 372 Qualitative Evaluations 375 What do you think? 332 Logistical Problems 377 Introduction 332 Use of Research Results 379 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xiv Contents Social Indicators research 385 CHAPter The Death Penalty and Deterrence 385 14 Quantitative Data Analysis 422 Computer Simulation 386 ethics and evaluation research 386 What do you think? 423 What do you think? REVISITED 387 Introduction 423 Main Points 388 Quantification of Data 424 Key Terms 389 Developing Code Categories 424 Proposing Social Research: Evaluation Codebook Construction 426 Research 389 Data Entry 427 Review Questions 389 Univariate Analysis 428 Distributions 428 PAr t FOUr Central Tendency 429 Dispersion 432 Analysis of Data Continuous and Discrete Variables 433 Detail versus Manageability 433 CHAPter Subgroup Comparisons 434 13 Qualitative Data Analysis 390 “Collapsing” Response Categories 434 Handling “Don’t Knows” 435 What do you think? 391 Numerical Descriptions in Qualitative Introduction 391 Research 435 Linking theory and Analysis 391 Bivariate Analysis 436 Discovering Patterns 392 Percentaging a Table 437 Grounded Theory Method 393 Constructing and Reading Bivariate Tables 439 Semiotics 394 Introduction to Multivariate Analysis 440 Conversation Analysis 396 Sociological Diagnostics 442 Qualitative Data Processing 396 ethics and Quantitative Data Analysis 444 Coding 397 What do you think? REVISITED 444 Memoing 401 Main Points 444 Concept Mapping 401 Key Terms 445 Computer Programs for Qualitative Data 403 Proposing Social Research: Quantitative Data QDA Programs 404 Analysis 445 Leviticus as Seen through Qualrus 404 Review Questions 446 NVivo 408 the Qualitative Analysis of Quantitative CHAPter Data 415 15 reading and Writing Social evaluating the Quality of Qualitative research 447 research 417 ethics and Qualitative Data Analysis 419 What do you think? 448 What do you think? REVISITED 420 Introduction 448 Main Points 420 reading Social research 448 Key Terms 421 Organizing a Review of the Literature 448 Proposing Social Research: Qualitative Data Reading Journals versus Books 449 Analysis 421 Evaluation of Research Reports 450 Review Questions 421 Using the Internet Wisely 455 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Contents xv Writing Social research 462 APPeNDIxeS Some Basic Considerations 462 A Using the Library 474 Organization of the Report 464 Guidelines for Reporting Analyses 467 B Random Numbers 481 Going Public 468 C Distribution of Chi Square 483 the ethics of reading and Writing Social D Normal Curve Areas 485 research 469 e Estimated Sampling Error 486 What do you think? REVISITED 469 Main Points 470 Key Terms 470 Glossary 487 Proposing Social Research: Putting the Proposal references 499 Together 471 Review Questions 471 Index 513 Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Boxed Features APPLyING CONCePtS IN eVeryDAy LIFe HOW tO DO It Birthrate Implications 13 Analyzing Data Online with the General Social Independent and Dependent Variables 17 Survey (GSS) 18 The Power of Paradigms 37 Framing a Hypothesis 44 Church Involvement 49 The Basic Elements of Informed Consent 66 Red Families and Blue Families 105 Putting Social Research to Work 94 On to Hollywood 146 Identifying the Unit of Analysis 103 Pregnant Chads and Voter Intentions 152 Conceptualization 134 What Is the Best College in the United Measuring College Satisfaction 148 States? 170 “Cause” and “Effect” Indicators 166 Assessing Women’s Status 180 Using a Table of Random Numbers 216 Representative Sampling 202 Conducting an Online Survey 284 Soap Opera Research Success 363 Establishing Rapport 317 Communication Is the Key 462 Reading and Evaluating Documents 355 Positive Deviance 369 Using Google Scholar and Other Online Resources 459 ISSUeS AND INSIGHtS Citing Bibliographic Sources 466 Social Research Making a Difference 5 Hints for Stating Hypotheses 46 Ethical Issues in Research on Human Sexuality 70 Validity and Social Desirability 154 How Healthy Is Your State? 173 Indexing the World 179 Sampling Iran 224 Interview Transcript Annotated with Researcher Memos 324 Testing Soap Operas in Tanzania 379 Chinese Public Opinion 384 Pencils and Photos in the Hands of Research Subjects 402 xvii Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  Preface The book in your hands has been about four The Practice of Social Research, I’ve been delighted decades in the making. It began in the class- to see that the first six editions of Basics seem to room, when I was asked to teach a seminar in have satisfied a substantial group of instructors survey research. Frustrated with the lack of good as well. The fine-tuning in this Seventh Edition textbooks on the subject, I began to dream up is intended to help Basics serve this group even something I called “A Survey Research Cookbook better than before. and Other Fables,” which was published in 1973 with a more sober title: Survey Research Methods. The book was an immediate success. How- CHANGeS IN tHe SeVeNtH ever, there were few courses limited to survey eDItION research. Several instructors around the coun- A revision like this depends heavily on the input try asked if “the same guy” could write a more from students and faculty, who have been using general methods book, and The Practice of Social earlier editions. Some of those suggestions Research appeared two years later. The latter resulted in two new features that have been book has become a fixture in social research added to every chapter: instruction, with the Fourteenth Edition pub- lished in 2015. The official two-volume Chinese edition was published in Beijing in 2000. General Changes Over the life of this first book, successive revi- Each chapter begins with a list of numbered learn- sions have been based in large part on sugges- ing objectives that are keyed to the relevant discus- tions, comments, requests, and corrections from sion in that chapter. my colleagues around the country and, increas- As with each edition, I have included illustrative ingly, around the world. Many also requested a data ( from the U.S. Census, opinion polls, obser- shorter book with a more applied orientation. vational studies) wherever possible. This doesn’t Whereas the third quarter of the twentieth change the methodological purposes for using the century saw a greater emphasis on quantita- data but it keeps the reader in closer touch with tive, pure research, the century ended with a the real world. renaissance of concern for applied sociological research (sometimes called sociological prac- Chapter Changes tice) and also a renewed interest in qualitative In addition to those book-wide changes, here research. The Basics of Social Research was first are some of the additional updates you’ll find published in 1999 in support of these trends. This in specific chapters of the book. Many of these Seventh Edition aims at increasing and improv- changes were made in response to comments ing that support. and requests from students and faculty. The book can also be seen as a response to changes in teaching methods and in student demographics. In addition to the emphasis on Part One: An Introduction to Inquiry applied research, some alternative teaching for- 1 Human Inquiry and Science mats have called for a shorter book, and student Added a discussion of Arbesman’s “half-life of facts” economics have argued for a paperback. While Updated census data on birthrates standard methods courses have continued using Expanded discussion of probabilistic causation xix Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xx Preface 2 Paradigms, Theory, and Research 7 The Logic of Sampling Clarified the meaning of disconfirmability in Updated presidential election polling connection with hypotheses Introduced term chain referral Tightened the use of paradigm and theory Added Michael Brick’s prediction of a rebirth of Added some bibliographic citations for classic quota sampling references Discussed FCC rules on calling cell phones Introductory discussion of logic and rationality Expanded discussion of sampling for online surveys 3 The Ethics and Politics of Social Research Revised box on selecting random numbers due to Pointed students to the National Institutes of new table in Appendix Health course on the ethics of human-subjects Related box on sampling in Iran to sampling in research the USA (or anywhere) Added example of Facebook 2012 study violating Cited Nate Silver’s FiveThirtyEight.com rating informed consent of pollsters Part two: the Structuring of Inquiry Part three: Modes of Observation 4 Research Design 8 Experiments Added a box reporting a graduate student’s Experiment on impact of race, sex, and parenthood experience in the field on hiring decisions Expanded the discussion of Figure 4-1 Cited use of chimpanzees or humans in studies of Expanded the box discussion of determining units the common cold of analysis Substituted Muslims for African Americans in Added new figure comparing time variable and running example of reducing prejudice different designs Cited Peter Lynn book on longitudinal surveys 9 Survey Research Added new section on mixed modes Updated and simplified online analysis of GSS data Cited Akerlof and Kennedy on the evaluation of Added example of survey type and sensitive environmental degradation studies information Introduced new trend study of American fears Added discussion of use of ABS (address-based sampling) in conjunction with RDD (random digit 5 Conceptualization, Operationalization, dialing) sampling for surveys and Measurement Updated section on web surveys, including the Discussion of measuring ethnicity in Cornwall advantages they hold County, Britain Added a comment on “mixed-mode” surveys New Applying Concepts in Everyday Life box, Noted the value of online surveys for targeting “Validity and Social Desirability” groups defined by web participation, like eBay Added discussion of cognitive interviewing buyers Added an example of bullying in the workplace Deleted the box on Voice Capture Added a test of whether the terms baby or fetus Quoted from AAPOR report on mobile devices affected abortion attitudes Cited an article on tablet-based surveys Added discussion of definition of rape and other variables 10 Qualitative Field Research Added discussion of Milner’s Freaks, Geeks, and 6 Indexes, Scales, and Typologies Cool Kids Updated the abortion example of a Guttman scale Added discussion of the impact of gender in to 2012 GSS in-depth interviews Cited Vision of Humanity’s global peace index Expanded the discussion of ethics in field research Cited the World Economic Forum’s “Global Added discussion of voice-centered relational Competitiveness Index” for rating 142 economies method Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.  preface xxi Added study asking subjects to do sketches regard- Learning Objectives: Each chapter includes learn- ing their vaginal disorders ing objectives to guide the student’s understanding Moved box on Pencils and Photos to Chapter 13 and comprehension of the chapter materials. Added example of participatory research in South Chapter Introduction: Each chapter opens with Africa an introduction that lays out the main ideas in Added citation on uses of video for data collection that chapter and, importantly, relates them to the content of other chapters in the book. 11 Unobtrusive Research Clear and Provocative Examples: Students often Added data on sex discrimination in income tell me that the examples—real and hypothetical— Added comparative/historical study of fair trade have helped them grasp difficult and/or abstract coffee ideas, and this edition has many new examples as Deleted box “Is America Number 1?” well as some that have proved particularly valuable Deleted box “Suffering around the World” in earlier editions. Introduced Population Action International Full-Color Graphics: From the first time I took mapping website a course in research methods, most of the key Introduced Google Public Data concepts have made sense to me in graphical form. Introduced Topsy Social Analytics Whereas my task here has been to translate those Introduced the Association of Religious Data mental pictures into words, I’ve also included some Archives and their Measurement Wizard illustrations. Advances in computer graphics Discussed Tyler Vigen’s work on spurious have helped me communicate to the Cengage correlations among big data Learning artists what I see in my head and would like to share with students. I’m delighted with 12 Evaluation Research the new graphics in this edition. Updated data on death penalty and murder rates Boxed Examples and Discussions: Students tell Added the example of a qualitative evaluation of a me they like the boxed materials that highlight Jamaican radio drama for youth particular ideas and studies as well as vary the format of the book. In this edition, I’ve updated Part Four: Analysis of Data Issues and Insights boxed features to elaborate on 13 Qualitative Data Analysis the logic of research elements, How to Do It boxes to provide practical guidance, and Applying Moved box on Pencils and Photos here from Concepts in Everyday Life features to help students Chapter 10 see how the ideas they’re reading about apply to Added an example of using picture-drawing to real research projects, as well as to their lives. study vaginal infections in Australia Running Glossary: There is a running glossary 14 Quantitative Data Analysis throughout the text. Key terms are highlighted in the text, and the definition for each term is listed at Illustrated use of bar graphs and pie charts the bottom of the page where it first appears. This 15 Reading and Writing Social Research makes it easier for students learn the definitions of these terms and to locate them in each chapter so Added citation to my e-book, Avoiding Plagiarism they can review them in context. Main Points: At the end of each chapter, a concise list of main points provides both a brief chapter PeDAGOGICAL FeAtUreS summary and a useful review. The main points Although students and instructors alike have let students know exactly what ideas they should told me that the past editions of this book were focus on in each chapter. effective tools for learning research methods, Key Terms: A list of key terms follows the main I see this edition as an opportunity to review points. These lists reinforce the students’ acquisition the book from a pedagogical standpoint—fine- of necessary vocabulary. The new vocabulary in tuning some elements, adding others. Here’s the these lists is defined in context within the chapters. resulting package for the Seventh Edition. The terms are boldfaced in the text, are defined in Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s). Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. xxii Preface the running glossary that appears at the bottom of