Introduction to Work Psychology PDF

Chapter 8: Workplace motivation and emotion Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Define motivation and emotion and the critical concepts related to these Distinguish between the different theories of motivation and their relative purposes Discu...

Chapter 8: Workplace motivation and emotion Learning Outcomes After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Define motivation and emotion and the critical concepts related to these Distinguish between the different theories of motivation and their relative purposes Discuss the practical application of various motivational strategies in the workplace Discuss how employees are motivated in the workplace using multiple theories of motivation Explain the impact of emotion on motivation using different theories of emotion Discuss the impact of culture on emotion Critically analyse various motivational concepts for improving employee motivation. Introduction Motivation → as goal-directed behaviour, or those aspects that push people towards certain behaviour and make them avoid other forms of behaviour. Emotions have an impact on motivation in the sense that they drive behaviours Affect both the strength of motivation and the appraisal process that triggers behaviour Motivate people’s behavioural choices and their intensity Cannot be separated from motivation and, in many regards, these phenomena are one and the same, or at least complement each other The nature of motivation Motivation can be defined as a condition, usually an internal one, that initiates, activates, or maintains an organism’s goal-directed behaviour Irrespective of whether motivation derives from an internal condition or some complex drive, motivation is an internal condition that cannot be directly observed Motivation is inferred to be the link between external behaviour and this internal drive Motivation initiates, activates or maintains behaviour Motivation leads to goal-directed behaviour In the organisational context, management aims to motivate competent individuals to join the organisation and, once employed, to stay with the organisation, come to work regularly, perform at or above an expected level of performance and exhibit good corporate citizenship Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation External drivers Internal drivers Circumstances, situations, rewards Comprises behaviours that are a that are perceived as benefit reward in themselves Result in behaviour being enacted Result in feelings of satisfaction, and perpetuated achievement and accomplishment OR These are perceived as punishment resulting in particular behaviours being avoided or completely extinguished  Two current concepts in psychology that describe internal motivation are: Flow: A person’s optimal Engagement: A person feeling a experience or sheer enjoyment passionate involvement with of & absorption in work and the their work and workplaces, or processes involved in executing with working towards achieving activities to complete tasks and goals achieve certain objectives Theories of motivation and their applications It is important for the I-O psychologist to understand why employees behave in specific ways and to understand which components should be included in motivational and reward strategies In psychology and I-O psychology, there are several motivational theories that comprise different paradigms on motivation The various theories can be seen as different explanations of motivation and attempt to explain different aspects of motivation Motivators brought into the organisation by the employee Each employee brings several particular attributes and experiences into an organisation that may be quite different from those of other employees The differences that employees bring into the organisation include their unique physiological and psychological make-up, individual experiences and distinctive talents and abilities It is necessary to consider the influence of diverse cultural factors among employees and how these can influence perceptions on work performance and work motivation Failure to acknowledge different perspectives and practices can be demotivating to those involved Physiological needs: Homeostatic drive theory The main features of homeostasis are as follows: Each homeostatic mechanism has a set point that identifies the ideal range for itself There is a corrective mechanism contained in the hypothalamus of the brain that makes alterations when it detects a significant deviation from the set point There is also a prospective element that helps people predict future changes that may occur Personality differences & values that direct motivations Values are beliefs that have an emotional weight that develops through experiences and cognitions. They are similar to needs in that they arouse, direct and sustain behaviour Values guide behaviour, as they are the standards that people use to make the choices that will satisfy specific needs In a study of purchasing behaviour, a list of 11 clusters of different personality types, or trait clusters, which appear to explain human actions or behaviour, was found: Social, outgoing, extroverted Independent, individualistic Emotional, touching, sensitive, feeling Selfless, giving Reserved, quiet, introverted Rational, practical, organised Spontaneous, creative, impulsive Conservative, traditional Involving, consensus-oriented, harmonious Progressive, innovative Assertive, in control, decisive  Talents, abilities and motivation The debate around how talents and abilities impact on motivation → controversial High levels of ability are often associated with high levels of performance, but this is not always the case. The argument is that, more often than not, people like to do what they are good at talented individuals tend to seek challenging tasks that make use of their abilities. In order to make this a reality, there needs to be a nurturing environment that challenges and supports the individual in place As Hayden (2002: 30) notes, “... if two equally motivated and equally talented individuals start from unequal social positions, it is likely that they will achieve unequal levels of wealth, income or powers of office” Motivation theories focusing on organisational factors Quality an approach to motivation of Work Environmental sculpting focuses on maintaining a healthy physical life work environment approach the job sculpting approach focuses on individual needs and job design Values Employees are treated with Employees understand the organisational functions & their contribution dignity & respect that Employees are invested in what Employees who are treated as adults act underlie more responsibly they help to create QWL Employees want to learn and grow with the organisation Herzberg’s relate to the unique human two-factor motivational characteristic, the ability to achieve → to experience theory factors psychological growth stem from a person’s “animal hygiene nature – the built-in drive to avoid pain from the environment, factors plus all the learned drives which became conditioned to the basic biological needs” Job Motivation, job Job rotation satisfaction and design performance are Job enlargement influenced by Job enrichment experiencing Job crafting meaningful work → Creating a complete piece of Job characteristics → work Scope in decision-making responsibility, variety & control The employee receives direct feedback Theories focusing on employee factors Theories that focus on personal attributes, especially needs that employees may have that must be satisfied to achieve optimum work motivation A need is an internal physical or psychological drive that creates a state of tension and motivates and directs behaviour to ease the tension Maslow’s hierarchy of needs self-realisation and Self-actualisation needs self-fulfilment Higher-order needs Ego and esteem needs to be respected have self-respect the desire for love Social needs & affection to be free from Safety needs Lower-order needs danger Psychological and Survival Needs Basic Needs Alderfer’s ERG theory Material and physical Existence desires that are required to survive Need to have Several needs can Relatedness relationships → share operate at the same thoughts and feelings, time belonging The need to be Growth productive and change oneself and progress towards one’s ideal self  one need is more dominant McClelland’s needs theory than the others in each individual The need for achievement (nAch) Focus on goals improving performance, and achieving tangible results The need for power (nPow) Wanting to gain control over people, resources, and the general environment The need for affiliation (nAff) Need to make friends, to join groups, and to associate with other people Motivating people by facilitating change in behaviours Goal-setting theory and behaviour modification are concerned with enhancing performance in relation to specific behaviours These theories focus on influencing a particular behaviour, as opposed to creating an environment that enhances motivation Goal-setting theory At the core of the goal-setting theory is the idea that behaviour is regulated by intentions The three key propositions that underlie the goal-setting theory are: 1. Specific goals lead to higher levels of performance than no goals or abstract goals, such as ‘do the best you can’ 2. Depending on the level of commitment, the higher the goal, the higher the level of performance 3. Issues such as monetary incentives, participative decision-making, feedback and knowledge of results affect performance only when employees are committed to goals Goals should be mutually acceptable to the manager and employee, implying that goals should be set by means of consultation → ego investment & self-efficacy Behaviour modification Behavioural modification is governed by the law of effect Behaviours followed by a positive outcome are more likely to be repeated, whereas those followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated Figure 8.4 (p. 279) Theories focusing on people’s beliefs Beliefs imply that employees are rational, thinking beings and can make decisions on how much work to do to achieve expected or desired results Expectancy theory Expectancy is the belief that the individual holds as to whether they will attain their desired goals The reasoning is that employees are motivated by the expected results of their actions, which include three elements: 1. Valence: Is the degree of satisfaction an employee anticipates they will receive from a particular outcome, that is, how much the person values the outcome 2. Instrumentality: Refers to the belief of the employee that their actions will lead to the desired outcome, that is, if they are likely to be successful with a certain amount of effort 3. Expectancy: Is the belief (probability) the individual holds as to whether they will achieve their desired goal Figure 8.5 (p. 280) Equity theory Equity theory states that employees compare themselves to others and believe that they should receive the same or similar rewards as those doing the same or a similar job, under the same or similar circumstances Comparisons can be made on three levels: 1. Comparisons with other individuals 2. Comparisons with reference groups 3. Comparisons with general occupational classifications Self-efficacy theory Self-efficacy refers to the individual’s estimate of their own ability to perform a specific task in a particular situation Persons with high levels of self-efficacy believe: 1. that they have the necessary abilities 2. that they are resourceful enough, in that they can summon the necessary effort and energy required 3. that they can overcome any obstacles in the environment that may hinder their ability to achieve their goals Cognitive evaluation theory This is a self-determination theory that centres on the idea that when a behaviour is perceived to be self-determined, this drives intrinsic motivation It is not the objective characteristics of an event that determine its motivational value, but instead the psychological meaning that an individual attaches to this event Cognitive evaluation theory is presented as four propositions: 1. If an external event is perceived to have been caused by something beyond an individual’s control, it undermines intrinsic motivation. In contrast, if the individual believes this event is under their control, it tends to enhance motivation 2. External events affect motivation in that those events that enhance people’s perceived competence strengthen their intrinsic motivation and vice versa 3. The demotivating aspect promotes perceived incompetence, which undermines perceived competence 4. Intrapersonal events differ in how significant they are for the person who experiences them and, thus, how much impact they have Management-centred theories of motivation McGregor’s theories X and Y McGregor believed that managers have two broadly opposing assumptions about employee behaviour, with the result that different managers treat employees very differently Table 8.1 (p. 283)  The self-fulfilling prophecy The assumptions made by managers about subordinates often become self-fulfilling prophecies, which are predictions that directly or indirectly cause themselves to become true if managers believe employees to be lazy, responsibility-averse and untrustworthy (Theory X), this tends to be the behaviour they get from their employees. If managers believe that their employees want to work hard, embrace responsibility, act in a trustworthy manner and are motivated by doing a good job (Theory Y), their employees are likely to prove their beliefs to be true  Facilitating and stimulating performance: Practical management strategies The following are some strategies that can be used to create mutually acceptable psychological contracts between the employees and the organisation: The organisation has and communicates a clear vision, mission and a set of values that inspire and direct employees Using value-based recruitment practices Fair organisational policies Providing two-way communication Creating a sense of community-based participation and teamwork Providing development opportunities ‘people-first values’ Recruiting and developing ‘right-kind’ managers Empowering employees  Different combinations of strategies can be used to motivate employees. It is critical that a climate of creativity is fostered and an open-minded approach is used to attract, stimulate and retain skilled and talented employees Human-resource specialists, such as I-O psychologists, and employers should consider the implications of these strategies with regard to diversity factors in organisations and among workforces This includes considering which approach will work best in different situations for each employee, and the ethical implications for applying these concepts and their related practical applications in the workplace The nature of emotion Emotions are the feeling aspect of consciousness; they are characterised by a level of physical arousal that may be translated into behaviour that communicates these feelings to the outside world Subconscious emotions mediate people’s attitudes, thinking and motivations Emotions may be experienced without any externally visible sign or obvious effect on behaviour Mood, temperament & expression of emotions Primary emotions→ distinctive physiological patterns and corresponding facial expressions. They tend to be fairly universal in all people and are easily recognisable Secondary emotions → blends of emotions that tend to be specific to cultures and will differ from culture to culture Temperament → dimensions of personality that are largely genetic or constitutional in origin, exist in most ages and most societies, show some consistency across situations and are relatively stable, at least within the developmental eras Mood → generic term denoting general feelings that are the result of a specific situation → a pervasive and sustained emotion that colours the person’s perceptions of the world. Empathy → the ability to understand the emotions of others Theories of emotion There are essentially four explanations of how emotions arise: 1. Begin as a subjective feeling → physiological changes → appropriate behaviour 2. Begin with physiological changes → lead to subjective feeling 3. The view that subjective feelings and physiological changes coincide 4. The view that emotions are the result of a complex interaction between cognitive factors, the environment and the nervous system Physiological theories of emotion All emotions have a common physiological basis Emotions are predominantly controlled by the brain and expressed through the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system The facial feedback hypothesis suggests that by their actions, facial movements can create emotions by giving feedback to the brain that offers an emotional response The James-Lange theory of emotion Figure 8.7 (p. 290) Walter Cannon (1927) identified several problems with the James- Lange theory: People who experience different emotions may exhibit the same physiological state Physiological changes are often too subtle to be noticed by the person Emotions occur very quickly Physiological arousal may occur without the experience of an emotion The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion Proposes that emotion originates in the thalamus, the section of the brain that simultaneously relays messages from the sensory organs Argues that the body and mind are activated independently in the experience of emotion Figure 8.8 (p. 291) Evolutionary theories of emotion Evolutionary psychologists argue that the mind was designed to solve problems encountered by our ancestors and that emotions serve an adaptive purpose → emotions help people adapt to their environments and survive In 1952, Paul MacLean published his theory of the triune brain which argued that emotions are located in the primitive paleomammalian structures of the brain. In contrast, higher cognitive activities take place in the more recently evolved neomammalian structures Theories of emotion based on cognitive appraisal Cognitive appraisal theories of emotion attempt to explain how rational judgements cause people to experience different emotional states Example: Two policemen who are being shot at by a burglar experience the same levels and types of physiological arousal. However, due to their cognitive interpretations, one may interpret this arousal as fear, and the other may interpret it as excitement The two-factor theory of emotion Schachter and Singer’s (1962) theory: argues that emotional states are a function of two factors, namely physiological arousal and a cognition (thought) suitable to this arousal. The theory states that when a person experiences physiological arousal for which there is no immediate explanation, they will label this according to the understandings available to them of what the causes of the experience are Figure 8.10 (p. 292) Arnold and Lazarus’s theory Magda Arnold defined emotions as “a felt tendency towards anything appraised as good, and away from anything appraised as bad” She argued that the initial appraisal started the sequence and produced both the appropriate actions together with the emotional experience itself. The physiological changes accompany the emotions, but are not responsible for these Arnold and Lazarus’s theory Richard Lazarus identified two major types of appraisals Figure 8.11 (p. 294) Culture and emotion Emotions are part of culture and critical to understanding how people shape and are shaped by their world. Emotions are shaped through discourse, that is, they are produced in language and through human interaction, and certain emotions cannot be understood outside the culture in which they were formed Emotions provide the main support for many social norms Emotions are also associated with effective intellectual functioning, such as the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) EI → “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions”