Latin American Peoples Win Independence PDF

Latin American Peoples Win Independence REVOLUTION Spurred by Sixteen of today's Latin peninsulare Jose de San Martin discontent and Enlightenment American nations gained their creole Miguel Hidalgo i...

Latin American Peoples Win Independence REVOLUTION Spurred by Sixteen of today's Latin peninsulare Jose de San Martin discontent and Enlightenment American nations gained their creole Miguel Hidalgo ideas, peoples in Latin America independence at this time. mulatto Jose Maria Morelos fought colonial rule. Sim6n Bolivar SETTING THE STACE The successful American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Enlightenment changed ideas about who should control government. Ideas of liberty, equality, and democratic rule found their way across the seas to European colonies. In Latin America, most of the population resented the domination of European colonial powers. The time seemed right for the people who lived there to sweep away old colonial masters and gain control of the land. Colonial Society Divided In Latin American colonial society, class dictated people's place in society and jobs. At the top of Spanish-American society were the peninsulares U®1i?MFiHMh¥i+i11 AKING NOTES (peh neen soo LAH rehs), people who had been born in Spain, which is on Use the graphic the Iberian peninsula. They formed a tiny percentage of the population. Only organizer online to take notes on Latin peninsulares could hold high office in Spanish colonial government. Creoles, American independence Spaniards born in Latin America, were below the peninsulares in rank. Creoles movements. could not hold high-level political office, but they could rise as officers in The Divisions in Spanish Colonial Society, 1789 Mestizos (7.3%) 1,034,000 Mulattos (7.6%) 1,072,000 EUROPEANS Peninsu/ares and { Creoles (22.9%) 3,223,000 Total 14,091 ,000 Indians (55.8%) _ _ _ _ __, Source: Colonial Spanish America, 7,860,000 by Leslie Bethell SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Graphs... 1. Clarifying Which two groups made up the vast majority of the population m Spanish America?. 2. Making Inferences Of the Europ eans, which group - penmsulares or creoles- probably made up a larger percentage? Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 247  Spanish colonial armies. Together these two groups controlled land, wealth, and power in the Spanish colonies. Below the peninsulares and creoles came the mestizos, persons of mixed European and Indian ancestry. Next were the mulattos, persons of mixed European and African ancestry, and enslaved Africans. Indians were at the bottom of the social ladder. Revolutions in the Americas By the late 1700s, colonists in Latin America, already aware of Enlightenment ideas, were electrified by the news of the American and French Revolutions. The success of the American Revolution encouraged them to try to gain freedom from their European masters. Revolution in Haiti The French colony called Saint Domingue was the first Latin American territory to free itself from European rule. The colony, now known as Haiti, occupied the western third of the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea. Nearly 500,000 enslaved Africans worked on French plantations, and they out- numbered their masters dramatically. White masters used brutal methods to terror- ize them and keep them powerless. While the French Revolution was taking place, oppressed people in the French colony of Haiti rose up against their French masters. In August 1791 , 100,000 "'Toussaint enslaved Africans rose in revolt. A leader soon emerged, Toussaint I.;Ouverture l'.Ouverture led (too SAN-loo vair TOOR). Formerly enslaved, Toussaint was unfamiliar with mili- enslaved Africans in tary and diplomatic matters. Even so, he rose to become a skilled general and a revolt against the French that ended diplomat. By 1801 , Toussaint had taken control of the entire island and freed all the slavery and resulted enslaved Africans. in the new nation In January 1802, 30,000 French troops landed in Saint Domingue to of Haiti. remove Toussaint from power. In May, Toussaint agreed to halt the revolu- tion if the French would end slavery. Despite the agreement, the French soon accused him of planning another uprising. They seized him and sent him to a prison in the French Alps, where he died in April I 803. Haiti's Independence Toussaint's lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines (zhahn ZHAHK day-sah LEEN), took up the fight for freedom. On January I, I 804, General Dessalines declared the colony an independent country. It was the first black colony to free itself from European control. Dessalines called the country Haiti, which in the language of the Arawak natives meant "mountainous land." Creoles Lead Independence Even though they could not hold high public office, creoles were the least oppressed of those born in Latin America. They were also the best educated. In fact, many wealthy young creoles traveled to Europe for their education. In Europe, the~ read a?out and adopted Enlightenment ideas. When they ·h h returned to Latin Amenca ' they · brought ideas of revo Iut·10n wit t em. Napoleon's. conquest..of, Spain. in 1808 triggered revo s m the spams It. · ·h co Iomes..Removmg. Spam s Kmg Ferdinand VII , Napo Ieon mad e h'1s bro th er Joseph king of Spam. Many creoles might have supported a Spanish king. However, they felt no loyalty to a king imposed bY th e French. Creoles, reca II -. ,. mg Locke s idea of the consent. of the governed, argued th at when the real king. was! removefd, p~wer sh1~ed to the people. In 1810, rebellion broke out in sev- era parts o Latm Amenca. The drive toward m. d ependence had begun. ,A> 248 Chapter 8  Sim6n Bolivar 1783-1830 Jose de San Martin 1778-1850 Called Libertador (Liberator), Unlike the dashing Bolivar, San B_o!fvar was a brilliant general, a Martin was a modest man. visi~nary, a writer, and a fighter. Though born in Argentina, he He 1s called the "George spent much of his youth in Washington of South America." Spain as a career military Bolivar planned to unite the officer. He fought with Spanish Spanish colonies of South forces against Napoleon. He America into a single country returned to Latin America to called Gran Colombia. The area be a part of its liberation from of upper Peru was renamed Spain. Fighting for 10 years, Bolivia in his honor. he became the liberator of Discouraged by political Argentina, Chile, and Peru. disputes that tore the new Latin Discouraged by political American nations apart, he is infighting, San Martin sailed reported to have said, "America for Europe. He died, almost is ungovernable. Those who forgotten, on French soil have served the revolution have in 1850. ploughed the sea." The South American wars of independence rested on the achievements of two brilliant creole generals. One was Sim6n Bolivar (see MAWN boh LEE vahr), a wealthy Venezuelan creole. The other great liberator was Jose de San Martin (hoh SAY day san mahr TEEN), an Argentinian. Bolivar's Route to Victory Simon Bolivar's native Venezuela declared its inde- pendence from Spain in 1811. But the struggle for independence had only begun. Bolivar's volunteer army of revolutionaries suffered numerous defeats. Twice Bolivar had to go into exile. A turning point came in August 1819. Bolivar led over 2,000 soldiers on a daring march through the Andes into what is now Colombia. (See the 1830 map on page 251.) Coming from this direction, he took the Spanish army in Bogota completely by surprise and won a decisive victory. By 1821 , Bolivar had won Venezuela's independence. He then marched south into Ecuador. In Ecuador, Bolivar finally met Jose de San Martin. Together they would decide the future of the Latin American revolutionary movement. San Martin Leads Southern Liberation Forces San Martin's Argentina had declared its independence in 1816. However, Spanish forces in nearby Chile and Peru still posed a threat. In 1817, San Martin led an army on a grueling march across the Andes to Chile. He was joined there by forces led by Bernardo O'Higgins, son of a former viceroy of Peru. With O'Higgins's help, San Martin finally freed Chile. In 1821, San Martin planned to drive the remaining Spanish forces out of Lima, Peru. But to do so, he needed a much larger force. San Martin and Bolivar dis- cussed this problem when they met at Guayaquil, Ecuador, in 1822. No one knows how the two men reached an agreement. But San Martin left his army for Bolivar to command. With unified revolutionary forces, Bolivar's army went on to defeat the Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho (Peru) on December 9, 1824. In this last major battle of the war for independence, the Spanish colonies in. Am · Latm enca won the1r· freedom The future countries of Venezuela, Colombia, ·. Panama, an d Ecuador were unl·ted into a country called Gran Colombia. Nationali st Revolt1tions Sweep the West 149  Mexico Ends Spanish Rule In most Latin American countries, creoles led the revolutionary movements. But in Mexico, ethnic and racial groups mixed more freely. There, Indians and mestizos played the leading role. A Cry for Freedom In 18IO, Padre Mi1uel Hidal10 (mee GEHL ee THAHL goh), a priest in the small village of Dolores, took the first step toward independence. T; Hidalgo was a poor but well-educated man. He firmly believed in Enlightenment ideals. On September 16, 1810, he rang the bells of his village church. When the J~J.. HISTORY peasants gathered in the church, he issued a call for rebellion against the Spanish. Today, that call is known as the grito de Dolores (the cry of Dolores). VIDEO The very next day, Hidalgo's Indian and mestizo followers began a march toward Miguel Hidalgo's Call to Arms Mexico City. This unruly army soon numbered 80,000 men. The uprising of 71 hmhsoc1alstud1es com the lower classes alarmed the Spanish army and creoles, who feared the loss of their property, control of the land, and their lives. The army defeated Hidalgo in 1811. The rebels then rallied around another strong leader, Padre Jose Marfa Morelos (moh RAY lohs). Morelos led the revolution for four years. However, in 1815, acre- ole officer, Agustin de Iturbide (ah goos TEEN day ee toor-BEE day), defeated him. Mexico's Independence Events in Mexico took yet another tum in 1820 when a revolution in Spain put a liberal group in power there. Mexico's creoles feared the loss of their privileges in the Spanish-controlled colony. So they united in support of Mexico's independence from Spain. Ironically, Agustin de Iturbide-the man who had defeated the rebel Padre Morelos-proclaimed independence in 182 1.. ll1fMfl@@ii¥Ui11~ INTERACTIVE HAP f.. - 40°N ATLA N TIC ATLA N TIC OCEAN OCEA N T E SANTO _ !Sp.) SANTO DOMINGO Tropic of Cancer HAm DOMINGO (Sp.) CAPTAINCY-GENERAL ~PUERTO ENEZUELA A(Br.) RICO(Sp.t P ACI F I C. BRITISH PACI FIC OCEA N UNITED PROVINCES A CENTRAL AMERIC UTCH OCEAN GRAN COLOMB I.ANA 0° Equator Pichi ~11 British colonies D Independent countries Dutch colonies 0 French colonies - San Martin 0 Portuguese colonies - Bolivar Ayacuc Major battle (182 Spanish colonies B Troll1c of Capricorn Tropic of Capricorn C Cha e (1 Santi a N N Mai A 2,000 Miles I 40°S A 2,000 Milas ( 18 9 ) I !==;;;;;s~=ie:=='2!:==1 riJ VINCES I ~.000 Kilometers A 4,000 Kilometers f LA PLATA ~ ~.~~ ~ 0 i 9 :E < ~ (Br.I ~. CiEOCiRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps...... 1. Reg1on W,,,.,at two £,uropean countr,,·es held the largest colonial. emp,res m Latin Amer,ca m 1800? 2 Reg1on Comparing the ,.,.o..., map5, which indenendent r countr,es had emerged by 1830 from Spanish territory in the Americas? 251  the viceroyalty of Before the Mexic an revolution, Central Ameri ca was part of seat of colonial govern- New Spain. It had been governed by the Spanis h from the d their indepen- ment in Mexico. In 1821 , several Central Ameri can states declare e (who had declared dence from Spain -and from Mexic o as well. However, Iturbid ndence. Iturbide himse lf emper or), refused to recognize the declarations of indepe d its absolute inde- was finally overthrown in 1823. Central Ameri ca then declare ces of Central America. penden ce from Mexico. It took the name the United Provin Salvador, and Costa The future countr ies of Nicaragua, Guatemala, Honduras, El Rica would develop in this region. Brazil's Royal Liberator Latin Ameri can his- Brazil's quest for independence was unique in this period of read bloodshed. In tory becaus e it occurr ed without violent upheavals or widesp a key role in freeing fact, a memb er of the Portuguese royal family actually played Brazil from Portugal. Napoleon's aim In 1807, Napoleon's armies invaded both Spain and Portugal. g. As French troops was to close the ports of these countries to British shippin King John VI) and the approached Lisbon , the Portuguese capital, Prince John (later their court and royal royal family boarded ships to escape capture. They took e the capital of the treasury to Portugal's largest colony, Brazil. Rio de Janiero becam Portuguese empire. For 14 years, the Portuguese ran their empire from Brazil. After 6iiAlinoEA i ment returned to Napoleon's defeat in 1815, King John and the Portuguese govern Making behind in Brazil. Inferences Portugal six years later. Dom Pedro, King John's son, stayed many Brazilians 1.!) In whal 11iy /: King John planned to make Brazil a colony again. However, the presence ol ,·, ded Brazil's inde- could not accept a return to colonial status. In 1822, creoles deman royal fami~ in a petitio n asking Dom penden ce from Portugal. Eight thousand Brazilians signed Brazil help declared Brazil's inde- Portugal'slarge! Pedro to rule. He agreed. On September 7, 1822, he officially ion. (!) colony? penden ce. Brazil had won its independence in a bloodless revolut of the Napoleonic Meanwhile, the ideas of the French Revolution and the aftermath Wars were causing upheaval in Europe, as you will learn in Section 2. ing its significance. TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explain Jose Marfa Morelos mulatto Simon Bolivar Jose de San Martin , Miguel Hidalgo peninsulare creole ====- =--= === === === ,r== === === === =,;= === === === === ast USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 6. COMPARING AND CONTRASTING Compare and conlf the 3. How was Spanish colonial I2. Which independence movement was led by society structured? the leadership of the South America n revolutio ns 10 Toussaint L'Ouverture? 4. How was the Haitian leadership of Mexico's revolution. 1 Revolution different from 7. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS Would ~r~~ Who Whvt revolutions in the rest of Latin revolutionaries tend to be democratic or authofl a America? leaders? Explain. lated How were events in Europe re 5. Which groups led the quest for 8. ANALYZING CAUSES Wht11 Why Mexican independence? to the revolutions in Latin America? tJuS onse 10 1~ 9. WRITING ACTIVITY J REVOLUTION Write I a res P - 115 ris " statement: "Throug h its policies, Spain gave up rule in South America." ~ MULTIMEDIA AOIVITY CREATING A MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATION Use the Internet to find information on the Mexican Indian rebel INTERNET KEYWORD ing group, the Zapatistas. Create a multimedia presentation describ Zapatistas the group and its goals. 252 Chapter 8  Europe Faces Revolutions REVOLUTION Liberal and The system of nation-states conservative nation-state nationalist uprisings challenged established in Europe during liberal the Balkans the old conservative order of this period continues today. radical Louis-Napoleo n Europe. nationalism Alexander II SETTING THE STAGE As revolutions shook the colonies in Latin America, Europe was also undergoing dramatic changes. Under the leadership of Prince Metternich of Austria, the Congress of Vienna had tried to restore the old mon- archies and territorial divisions that had existed before the French Revolution. (See Chapter 7.) On an international level, this attempt to tum back history succeeded. For the next century, European countries seldom turned to war to solve their differences. Within countries, however, the effort failed. Revolutions erupted across Europe between 1815 and 1848. Clash of Philosophies ln the first half of the 1800s, three schools of political thought struggled iij,Mi·fWfiA@ hii+iuh AKING NOTES for supremacy in European societies. Each believed that its style of Use the graphic organizer government would best serve the people. Each attracted a different set of follow- online to take notes on ' Prince Clemens ers. The list below identifies the philosophies, goals, and followers. major revolutions in Yon Metternich Conservative : usually wealthy property owners and nobility. They Europe. shaped conservative argued for protecting the traditional monarchies of Europe. ;:ualrnost 40 0 1of Europe yea rs. Liberal: mostly middle-class business leaders and merchants. They wanted to give more power to elected parliaments, but only the educated and the landowners would vote. Radical: favored drastic change to extend democracy to all people. They believed that governments should practice the ideals of the French Revolution- liberty, equality, and brotherhood. Nationalism Develops As conservatives, liberals, and radicals debated issues of government, a new movement called nationalism emerged. Nationalism is the belief that people's greatest loyalty should not be to a king or an empire but to a nation of people who share a common culture and history. The nationalist movement would blur the lines that separated the three political theories. When a nation had its own independent government, it became a nation-state. A nation-state defends the nation's territory and way of life, and it represents the nation to the rest of the world. In Europe in 1815, only Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 253  France, England, and Spain could be called nation-states. But soon that would change as nationalist movements achieved success. Most of the people who believed in nationalism were either liberals or radicals. ln most cases, the liberal middle class-teachers, lawyers, and businesspeople- led the struggle for constitutional government and the fonnation of nation-states. In Germany, for example, liberals wanted to gather the many different Gennan states into a single nation-state. Other liberals in large empires, such as the Hungarians in the Austrian Empire, wanted to split away and establish self-rule. Nationalists Challenge Conservative Power The first people to win self-rule during this period were the Greeks. For centuries, Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans controlled most of the Balkans. That region includes all or part of present-day Greece, Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and the fonner Yugoslavia. Greeks, however, had kept alive the memory of their ancient history and culture. Spurred on by the nationalist spirit, they demanded independence and rebelled against the Ottoman Turks in 1821. Greeks Gain Independence The most powerful European governments opposed revolution. However, the cause of Greek independence was popular with people around the world. Russians, for example, felt a connection to Greek Orthodox Christians, who were ruled by the Muslim Ottomans. Educated Europeans and Americans loved and respected ancient Greek culture. Eventually, as popular support for Greece grew, the powerful nations of Europe took the side of the Greeks. In 1827, a combined British, French, and Russian fleet destroyed the Ottoman fleet hni at the Battle of Navarino. In 1830, Britain, France, and Social History Analyzing Motives Russia signed a treaty guaranteeing an independent king- ~ Why would dom of Greece. t) Europeans and Americans support 1830s Uprisings Crushed By the 1830s, the old order, ~ Greek revolu- carefully arranged at the Congress of Vienna, was breaking tionary movement? down. Revolutionary zeal swept across Europe. Liberals and nationalists throughout Europe were openly revolting against conservative governments. Nationalist riots broke out against Dutch rule in the Belgian city of Brussels. In October 1830, the Belgians declared their independence from Dutch control. In Italy, Nationalistic Music nationalists worked to unite the many separate states on the As the force of nationalism began Italian peninsula. Some were independent. Others were to rise in Europe, ethnic groups ruled by Austria, or by the pope. Eventually, Prince recognized their music as a unique element of their culture. Composers Metternich sent Austrian troops to restore order in Italy. The used folk melodies in their works. For Poles living under the rule of Russia staged a revolt in example, Czech composer Antonin Warsaw late in J830. Russian armies took nearly an entire Dvorak (DVAWR zhahk), pictured year to crush the Polish uprising. By the mid- l 830s, the old above, and the Norwegian composer order seemed to have reestablished itself. But the appear- Edvard Grieg incorporated popular melodies and legends into their works. ance of stability did not last long. These works became a source of pride 1848 Revolutions fail to Unite In 1848, ethnic uprisings and further encouraged the sense of erupted throughout Europe. (See the map on ~age 2~5.) nationalism. Richard Wagner created a After an unruly mob in Vienna clashed with pohce, cycle of four musical dramas called Metternich resigned and liberal uprisings bro~e ou~ through- Der Ring des Nibelungen. His operas are considered the pinnacle of out the Austrian empire. In Budapest, nationalist leader German nationalism. Louis Kossuth called for a parliament and self-government Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 255  for Hungary. Meanwhile in Prague, Czech lib- erals demanded Bohemian independence. European politics continued to seesaw. Many liberal gains were lost to conservatives within a year. In one country after another, the ~~ revolutionaries failed to unite themselves or their nations. Conservatives regained their nerve and their power. By l849, Europe had fiWhYWerlll1 practically returned to the conservatism that the revolutions 1830 and ~ 1848 had controlled governments before 1848. ~ successtun. Radicals Change France Radicals participated in many of the 1848 revolts. Only in France, however, was the radical demand for democratic government the main goal of revolution. In 1830, France 's King Charles X tried to stage a return to abso- lute monarchy. The attempt sparked riots that forced Charles to flee to Great Britain. He was replaced by Louis-Philippe, who had long sup- ported liberal reforms in France. The Third Republic However, in 1848, after a reign of almost 18 years, Louis-Philippe fell In Combat Before from popular favor. Once again, a Paris mob the Hotel de Ville, overturned a monarchy and established a republic. The new republican government July 28th, 1830, began to fall apart almost immediately. The radicals split into factions. One side Victor Schnetz wanted only political reform. The other side also wanted social and economic portrays the riots in Paris that forced reform. The differences set off bloody battles in Parisian streets. The violence turned Charles X to flee to French citizens away from the radicals. As a result, a moderate constitution was Great Britain. drawn up later in 1848. It called for a parliament and a strong president to be elected by the people. France Accepts a Strong Ruler In December 1848, Louis-Napoleon, the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, won the presidential election. Four years later, Louis-.~ Napoleon Bonaparte took the title of Emperor Napoleon III. A majority of French voters accepted this action without complaint. The French were weary of instability. They welcomed a strong ruler who would bring peace to France. ,SJ H oW -~~ describe 1/lt As France's emperor, Louis-Napoleon built railroads, encouraged industrializa- cal swings~ tion, and promoted an ambitious program of public works. Gradually, because of in France ~ Louis-Napoleon's policies, unemployment decreased in France, and the country 1S30 and1ss21 experienced real prosperity. Reform in Russia Unlike France, Russia in the 1800s had yet to leap into the modern industrialized world. Under Russia's feudal system, serfs were bound to the nobles whose land they worked. Nobles enjoyed almost unlimited power over them. By the 1820s, many Russians believed that serfdom must end. In their eyes, the system was morally wrong. It also prevented the empire from advancing economically. The czars, however, were reluctant to free the serfs. Freeing them would anger the landowners, whose support the czars needed to stay in power. 256 Chapter 8  ~ ,, -- Defeat Brings Change Eventually, Russia's lack of develop- ment became obvious to Russians and to the whole world. In 1853, Czar Nicholas I threatened to take over part of the Ottoman Empire in the Crimean War. However, Russia's industries and transportation system failed to provide ade- quate supplies for the country's troops. As a result, in 1856, Russia lost the war against the combined forces of France, Great Britain, Sardinia, and the Ottoman Empire. After the war, Nicholas's son, Alexander II, decided to move Russia toward modernization and social change. Alexander and his advisers believed that his reforms would allow Russia to compete with western Europe for world power. Reform and Reaction The first and boldest of Alexander's reforms was a decree freeing the serfs in 1861. The abolition of serfdom, however, went only halfway. Peasant communi- Emancipation ties- rather than individual peasants- received about half In 1861, on the day before Abraham the farmland in the country. Nobles kept the other half. The Li~coln became president of the government paid the nobles for their land. Each peasant United States, Czar Alexander II community, on the other hand, had 49 years to pay the gov- issued the Edict of Emancipation, ernment for the land it had received. So, while the serfs were freeing 20 million serfs. Less legally free, the debt still tied them to the land. than two years later, President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Political and social reforms ground to a halt when terror- Proclamation, freeing enslaved ists assassinated Alexander II in 1881. His successor, peoples living under the Confederacy. Alexander III, tightened czarist control over the country. The emancipation edicts did not Alexander III and his ministers, however, encouraged indus- entirely fulfill the hopes of Russian trial development to expand Russia's power. A major force serfs or former slaves in the United IPeneea behind Russia's drive toward industrial expansion was States. Russian peasant communi- Analyzing Issues ties, like the one pictured above, f)Whydid nationalism. Nationalism also stirred other ethnic groups. were still tied to the land. And czars push for During the 1800s, such groups were uniting into nations and Lincoln did not free enslaved people industrialization? building industries to survive among other nation-states. in-the border states. TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. 'conservative liberal radical nationalism nation-state the Balkans Louis-Napoleon Alexander II USINC YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2 · ~y did most of the revolts 3 How were radicals different 6. MAKING INFERENCES Why might liberals and radicals join fail? together in a nationalist cause? from liberals? I 4. Why did France's Third 7. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS Why did some liberals Republic fail? disapprove of the way Louis-Napoleon ruled France after I the uprisings of 1848? s. What was the driving force behind Russia's industrial 8. EVALUATING DECISIONS What consequences did expansion? Alexander's reforms have on Russia? I I 9. WRmNG ACTMTY REVOLUTION Imagine you live in Europe in 1848. Write a letter to a friend, stating your political position-conservative, liberal, or radical. Express your feelings about the uprisings and the future of Europe. '-= ~ I ~ iblr --- - Early ' l 5 111 Zffl WRITING A TV NEWS SCRIPT reduc~t~e 21st century, hostility between Greeks and Turks on the is!and hof ~tr~s was · repare a TV news script about the current status of governing t e is an · Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West 257