Chapter 6 & 7 Purposive Communication PDF

Chapter 6 COMMUNICATION AND STRATEGIES USING TOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY RATIONALE: The 21st century is the time when we need to develop multimodal literacy knowledge and skills. Today, an effective communicator must be knowledgeable and skillful in designing and communicating meaning through such rich and...

Chapter 6 COMMUNICATION AND STRATEGIES USING TOOLS OF TECHNOLOGY RATIONALE: The 21st century is the time when we need to develop multimodal literacy knowledge and skills. Today, an effective communicator must be knowledgeable and skillful in designing and communicating meaning through such rich and potentially complex texts. This chapter will enable the students to learn how to make careful choices and effective designs in executing different communication aids. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this chapter, you must be able to: 1. learn the major types of communication aids; 2. understand the functions of communication aids; and 3. know how to prepare quality communication aids CONTENT: Putting communication at the front of your mind and becoming more aware of how you communicate in a given context can be informative and have many positive effects. Whenever you work with groups, you are able to apply what you have learned about group communication to improve your performance and overall experience. You also notice that there is a need to adapt to certain requirements that foster timely presentations or communication with your audiences. Multimodal texts require a new set of skills to enable a communicator to make informed choices within and across the available communication modes to construct meaning effectively. Creating, developing, and producing spoken, written, or multimodal texts in print or digital forms is an embedded literacy expectation across all disciplines. Multimodal is defined in the Australian Curriculum as the strategic use of two or more communication modes to make meaning (e.g., image, gesture, music, spoken language, and written language). Creating a PowerPoint presentation, for example, is complex requiring a combination of modes such as, written language, image, movement, sound effect, and spatial design. Presenting it in public would necessitate the presenter to demonstrate spoken language and gestures. The process of constructing such texts is indeed cross-disciplinary because it activates different digital information technologies as well as the Arts (i.e., media, visual arts, design, music, and drama). MAJOR TYPES OF COMMUNICATION AIDS Public presentations suggest the appropriate selection of communication aids. Your strategy to present your speech or lecture will absolutely affect your audience and speech context. Presented below are the major types of communication aids that can be used for presentations: computer-based media, audiovisual media, low-tech media. 1. Computer-based Media Today, computer-based communication aids are the norm. In most careers, speakers are expected to be skillful and comfortable in using PowerPoint or web- based alternatives to create and display communication aids. You have probably had the opportunity the significance and usefulness of the computer in different public presentations. Using computer-based aids in a speech will physically isolate you from the audience with whom you are trying to establish rapport. You may feel really comfortable when you stand behind presentation equipment; however, this limits your nonverbal interaction with your audience. The use of computer may not be comfortable for some, especially if this equipment is not available to them—one may not have a personal computer or it may not be available in the workplace. In either case, check with your classmates, teachers, or colleagues about the preparations that will be needed. It is important to reserve one in advance. It is important if you can gain access to a computer ahead of time to practice and familiarize yourself with the necessary commands to make your slides run properly. It is also wise to be prepared for technical problems, which can happen even to the very skillful computer user. On the day of your presentation, be sure to arrive early for you to test out the equipment before the event begins. Software packages were first introduced to computer presentations in the 70s, but these products were expensive and needed highly trained technicians to operate the programs. Today, there are a number of presentation software programs that are free and relatively less costly and that can be learned quickly by nonexperts. 2. Audiovisual Media Audiovisual is a communication aid that has both a sound and a visual component (i.e., slide tape presentations, films, videoclips, podcasts, online videos, documentaries, television programs, and live theater productions). Audiovisual media frequently use web streaming, video conferencing, and live broadcast services. In education, computer-based audiovisual equipment is often used in schools installing projection equipment and using interactive whiteboard technology. An interactive whiteboard is a large whiteboard, a standalone touchscreen computer, or a connectable apparatus used as a touchpad to control computers from a projector.  In all levels of education, audiovisual media are used as an instructional mode where particular attention is paid to the audio and visual presentations of the material, with the goal of improving comprehension and retention. It breaks down the traditional barriers of written communication to ensure that the students comprehend the message easily, resulting in better discussion and collaboration in education, business, and personal applications. Advantages of Audiovisual Media a. Clarity. Using both audio and visual components provide clarity in communication. In a print-based text like a letter, its tone and mood, which may come across differently to the reader, may give different perceptions. Audiovisual input enables the designer and the audience to observe facial expressions, hear tones and inflections, and clarify each other’s meanings and positions. b. Speed. Today’s communication is immediate, with the use of audiovisual media such as, videos, phones, webcams, and face-to-face meetings. It defeats the written mode of communication which may take several weeks and months before it reaches its destination. c. Retention. There seems an increase of message retention when audio and visual cues are combined. According to the United States Department of Labor (In Ireland, 2018), a mere 10 percent of information is retained when presented only orally and only 35 percent of information is retained when presented only visually. But when audio and visual tools are combined to present a message or idea, 65 percent of that information is retained. Presentation software and video conferencing can be effective tools in meetings and lectures because your audience receives and processes the information more effectively than it would with more traditional approaches. d. Media. Videos, visual aids, and sound clips create a multimedia experience when they are added to your presentation. Using a variety of media (i.e., from mp3s to video footage to still-image slideshows and online social media) in communication helps you become more engaging to your audience. 3. Low-Tech Media Sometimes, computer technology is not available in some speaking situations. In some instances, computer-based presentation aids are unnecessary or even counterproductive even if you have ready access to technology. Still, in some cases, computer-based or audiovisual media may be accompanied by low-tech media to achieve a more effective communication. One of the advantages of low tech-media is that they are very predictable. You can project or anticipate their use with little interference. They are also inexpensive and are easy to use. However, they are prone to physical damage and are difficult to keep. You need to be careful in handling them. Examples of Low-tech Media a. Chalk or Dry-Erase Board. Most speakers use this medium when they were not able to prepare their communication aids. Failure to prepare a presentation aid during a talk gives the audience a negative impression toward you, mostly negative. However, you may use the board for interactive components of your speech; hence, it becomes effective. You may write on the board your audience’s responses at various points in your speech. It is very useful when you want to show visually the information that you are receiving from your audience. b. Flipchart. For briefing small groups, flip charts are very useful. They are easily prepared and inexpensive. The tip markers and graphic materials are readily available, and with the modest ability of the presenter, it can compose the desired material. Flipcharts help the speaker proceed through the material by providing the audience with something to look in addition to the speaker. It can be prepared before or during the presentation, can be used to record audience’s questions and comments, and can be converted to slides. However, flipcharts may require the use of graphics talent. They are not suitable for use in a large audience setting and may be difficult to transport. c. Foam Board or Poster Board. Foam board consists of a thin sheet of Styrofoam with heavy paper bonded to both surfaces. Although it is a lightweight, inexpensive foundation for information, it can stand on its own when placed in an easel without curling under at the bottom edge. Conversely, a poster board is cheaper than foam board. It is flimsier, more vulnerable to damage, and cannot stand on its own. In public speaking, most speakers create professional posters using a full- color poster printer. Typically, posters are sketched out and then designed on a computer using a program like Microsoft PowerPoint or Publisher. These programs have the option of selecting the size of the printed area. d. Handouts. As with any presentation aid, handouts are not a substitute for a wellprepared speech. They are only appropriate for delivering information that audience members can take away. Using handouts requires a great deal of management if they are to contribute to your credibility as a speaker. When you plan to use handouts, bring enough copies for each audience member to get one. Looking on with one’s neighbor’s handouts does not contribute to a professional image. If the number of handouts is not enough for all members of the audience, you will have no control over the speed at which it circulates, or the direction it goes. It may not even reach everybody by the end of your speech, or listeners could still be passing your handouts around during the next speaker’s speech. If one listener only holds a handout  for two or four more listeners while you are making a point, it absolutely decreases attention and restricts comprehension as listeners are wanting to see the handout but have a limited access to it. By the time they were able to see your point on the handout, they will have forgotten why they need to see it. Moreover, a handout should include only the necessary information to support your points, and that information should be organized in such a way that listeners will be able to understand it. If your handout is designed for your audience to follow along, you should tell them so. Tell them to refer to specific information during your speech. You may also want them to read some of the information and then go on to explain them. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION AIDS Rehearsing your speech prior to its delivery has been the norm and is suggested by many experts in the field. Even without technology assistance, you can stand out as an effective speaker if you delivered your speech enough to stand on its own. However, it is also important to recognize that a good speech can often be made even better by the strategic use of communication aids. Technically speaking, communication aids are presentation aids that can fulfill several functions in order to create an impressive presentation. No matter how impressive your communication aids are, they cannot secure a good speech. Thus, such aids to communication should complement with good speech delivery. Following are the functions of communication aids: 1. To clarify or emphasize a point. 2. To enhance retention and recall of your message. 3. To clarify or emphasize a point. 4. To enhance retention and recall of your message. 5. To add variety and interest to your speech. 6. To enhance your credibility as a speaker. PREPARING COMMUNICATION AIDS Communication aids such as those discussed earlier: computer-based, audiovisual, or lowtech media are impressive presentation aids but cannot replace a well-prepared speech. These communication tools should stand on their own in delivering information, but do not count on them to do so. This may frustrate you when technical problems arise. Instead, work toward a goal of delivering your speech. Explain your presentation aids so that your audience will know why you are using them. Putting too much information on an aid is one mistake you should avoid. Match your speech with your presentation aids by narrowing the topic and content of your speech. Your presentation aids should not represent every idea in your speech. It should only fulfill certain functions described earlier. GUIDELINES IN PREPARING QUALITY COMMUNICATION AIDS a. They must be easily seen or heard by your audience. b. They should be easily handled. c. They should be aesthetically pleasing. d. Text type must only be used when needed. e. Control the size and lines of graphic images. f. Computer presentations should be used purposively. g. Always have a backup plan. GENERALIZATION: Texts offer the means for communicating and form an important part of study in any given course. Evaluating messages and images of different types of texts requires the evaluator to comprehend the initial textual data that lie on text features. It involves the active construction of meaning through the interaction of the evaluator who is engaged on critically reading print-based or multimodal texts. Print-based refers to those texts that are prepared in prints while multimodal texts refer to those types of texts that use a combination of two or more communication modes, for instance, print, image, and spoken text as in film or computer presentations. Semiotics is the study of meaning-making. Two or more of the following semiotic systems are needed in evaluating a multimodal text: linguistic, visual, audio, gestural, and spatial. Multimodal texts necessitate readers and listeners to practice critical reading and listening. Critical reading is the process of reading that goes beyond comprehension of a text. Critical Listening, on the other hand, requires active thinking because it goes far beyond just hearing a speaker’s message. It involves analyzing the information of a speech and making important decisions about truth, authenticity, and relevance. Whenever you evaluate multimodal texts, communication allows you to see more of what is going on around you, which allows you to participate actively and competently in various communication in a multicultural setting. Multimodal texts are constructed means such that they can also be deconstructed or separated into its various parts— source, message, medium, audience, and context.  Chapter 7 COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES RATIONALE: As an essential life skill, the ability to communicate for various purposes is something every student should endeavor to learn and hone. This chapter will help students understand communication as a “social process” involving “the transfer of information and understanding from one person to another person”. LEARNING OBJECTIVES: At the end of this chapter, you must be able to: 1. select a topic and identify your purpose; 2. analyze audiences; 3. gather materials that can be used in putting together a speech; and 4. learn various patterns in organizing thoughts and ideas CONTENT: At every stage of a student’s life, and even beyond that, the skill and the knowledge to communicate, to acquire and convey information, and to persuade and argue are not only necessary but indispensable. There are numerous theories attempting to explain the nature of communication and identify its elements. But the most commonly cited definition involves the process of a sender with an idea encoding a message, which is then sent through a medium or channel until it reaches a receiver, who decodes the message and sends back a feedback. In his book titled “Ted Talks: The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking,” Chris Anderson, head of TED, a not-for-profit organization “devoted to spreading ideas, usually in the form of short, powerful talks (18 minutes or less),” explains how speakers manage to affect or influence their audience (in his example 1,200 people are listening to a TED Talks speaker): “The 1,200 brains inside the heads of 1,200 independent individuals start to behave very strangely. They begin to sync up. A magic spell woven by the woman washes over each person. They gasp together. Laugh together. Weep together. And as they do so, something else happens. Rich, neurologically encoded patterns of information inside the woman’s brain are somehow copied and transferred to the 1,200 brains in the audience. These patterns will remain in those brains for the rest of their lives, potentially impacting their behavior years into the future.” What happens during a TED Talks event is an “astounding” example of the seemingly magical power of oral communication or public speaking to share information and to persuade. Stephen E. Lucas, author of “The Art of Public Speaking,” said that we should not be surprised that people value public speaking because “throughout the history of Western civilization, this art has been a vital means of communication.” He added that “In modern times, many men and women have spread their ideas and influence largely by public speaking.” As a student, you are expected to give presentations and speak in front of different audiences. In almost all the courses that you will take up in college, you will be assigned to do research on certain topics and report on them in front of your fellow students. If you run for a position in the student body, you will be obliged to deliver speeches as you persuade the student-electorate to vote for you. After graduation, the same demands for public speaking will be expected from you. The skill of public speaking, therefore, is as essential as the ability to write or read or count. Therefore, how do you develop your ability for public speaking? Preparing a speech is not unlike preparing yourself to write an essay. In essay writing, a writer follows these steps: prewriting, drafting, and revising (or editing/proofreading). In speech making, there are also prewriting activities that you need to follow. Stephen E. Lucas identifies these steps as: (1) selecting a topic and purpose, (2) analyzing your audience, and (3) gathering the materials that you will need to prepare your speech. SELECTING YOUR TOPIC AND IDENTIFYING YOUR PURPOSE If the speech that you will make is in the context of a classroom assignment, then the topic will be most likely given by your professor and the purpose identified by him. There are two general reasons (or purposes) for why a person, such as you, is going to deliver a speech. One reason is to inform your audience about something and the other reason is to persuade them to a certain belief or attitude. Explaining to your audience how a computer works is informational but telling them how capitalism is better than socialism is persuasive. Delivering an oral report in class about the meaning and functions of management, for example, is oral communication for the purpose of providing information, but when, in the same report, you argue that it is easier to understand the nature of management through an analysis of managerial skills than that of functions, you are communicating for the purpose of persuasion, that is, you are trying to convince your fellow classmates that they should adopt your idea or belief. There are speeches, however, that are so subtly crafted that, even though they sound like informational speeches, they are in fact persuasive speeches. Take for instance the speeches delivered by Steve Jobs, Apple’s co-founder and former CEO, during launches of Apple products. They were deceptively informational, but the effect is brilliantly persuasive. In these presentations, Jobs seemed to be simply describing Apple products (Ipod, Iphone, among other gadgets), but in fact they were marketing pitches as Jobs tried to sell his products to the audience. Choosing a topic can make or break your talk. In choosing a topic, you must decide whether it is interesting enough for you that you can hurdle all the challenges that you will face in preparing it. But even if you find your topic to be worthwhile, the next question to ask yourself is if you have the capability to see through the process. Do you have the expertise in the subject area you will be doing a talk about? Or, at the very least, do you know enough about the subject? Another important thing to remember in selecting a subject is that it should be narrow enough for you to be able to explore it with reasonable depth. A rule in topic selection in essay writing is “Write more about less.” No doubt this is applicable in speech writing as well. Just like a topic, the purpose for a talk can also be general and specific. To inform is an example of a general purpose while To explain to my audience how psychoanalytic reading is done is an instance of a specific purpose. The purpose will guide the speakers how they will prepare everything. The talk will be shaped by its purpose. According to Lucas (1989), “formulating a specific purpose is the most important early step in developing a successful speech.” He provides five general principles in writing a purpose statement. 1. Write the purpose statement as a full infinitive phrase, not as a fragment. Do not write ‘The parts of a computer’, but rather write ‘To inform my audience of the different parts of a desktop computer.’ 2. Express your purpose as a statement, not as a question. Do not write ‘What is a bitcoin’ but rather write ‘To inform my audience of the nature of bitcoins.’ 3. Avoid figurative language in your purpose statement. Don’t: To persuade my audience that invalidating the exam because some of the test takers have cheated is like throwing out the baby with the bath water. Do: To persuade my audience that invalidating the exam because some of the test takers have cheated is an unfair punishment on most of the test takers simply because a few of them have violated the rules. 4. Limit your purpose statement to one distinct idea. Don’t: To persuade my audience that computer addiction among teenagers is due to lack of attention by parents and that broken homes are the result of one parent being unfaithful to another. Do’s: To persuade my audience that computer addiction among teenagers is due to lack of attention by parents.  To persuade my audience that broken homes are the result of one parent being unfaithful to another. 5. Make sure your specific purpose is not too vague or general. Don’t: To persuade my audience that invalidating the exam because some of the test takers have cheated is like throwing out the baby with the bath water. Do: To persuade my audience that invalidating the exam because some of the test takers have cheated is an unfair punishment on most of the test takers simply because a few of them have violated the rules. In addition to these principles, Lucas (1989) also suggested five questions that you should ask yourself when you are preparing for a talk. These questions are: 1. Does my purpose meet the assignment? If you think it does not and you have questions, do not hesitate to ask your professor. For example, if your professor requires you to deliver a report on the nature of public relations, the issue of whether or not PR as a profession is healthy for society can crop up. You can ask your professor if s/he wants you to include your opinion on the matter. In this case, the purpose of your oral report is no longer informative but persuasive as well. 2. Can I accomplish my purpose in the time allotted? In delivering a talk or an oral report, one important factor that you cannot ignore is time limit. TED Talks, the most famous public speaking event, requires its speakers to deliver “short, powerful talks” in 18 minutes or less. To meet this all-so-important demand, you must come up with a realistic topic and a realistic purpose. A topic and a purpose such as this—To inform my audience about the evolution of communication technology beginning from the ancient period to the present—is obviously too ambitious for an 18-minute talk unless you are willing to run the risk of giving an incomplete picture of your topic. 3. Is the purpose relevant to my audience? What will be your audience’s takeaway from your talk? If there is none, then your talk loses its relevance to your audience. When that happens, you will not only waste your time but also that of your audience. In addition, your talk will most likely fail because your audience will find it boring. They will fidget in their seats and wish that you were never born. To make you talk interesting to your audience, make it relevant. 4. Is the purpose too trivial for my audience? Earlier we mentioned that when you give a talk your topic should not be too broad or complicated. However, this does not mean that you will oversimplify to the point that your purpose becomes too trivial for your audience. You must strike the fine balance between superficial and complicated. 5. Is the purpose too technical for my audience? Sometimes in our eagerness to impress our professor we choose a topic and a purpose that is too technical for our intended audience. To persuade my audience that the use of objective correlative is inherent in Japanese haikus is an example of a technical purpose.  Much like a trivialized purpose a too-technical purpose can easily lose the interest of your audience. But it can be done. In the example above, you can start by defining what “objective correlative” is and then proceed to cite examples of its use in poems before tackling the big question of how it is useful in Japanese haikus. ANALYZING YOUR AUDIENCE When you are a swimmer and you are about to dive into the pool, the first thing that you will do is to check how deep the water is. The same is true when giving a talk in front of a group of people. You must analyze your audience before you even open your mouth. This is important because without an understanding of your audience, you will not be able to address them properly. The reason we communicate is that we have a message to convey, and that there are people who want to or are willing to listen to us. The importance of our audience cannot be overstated. It is therefore imperative that we learn as much as we can about our audience even before we start working on our talk. But how do we analyze our audience? Lucas (1989) identifies two methods of analysis for audience: (1) demographic audience analysis and (2) situational audience analysis. 1. Demographic analysis, as the word implies, involves analyzing your audience in terms of their demographics such as sex/gender, age, racial/ethnic/cultural background, group membership, and income. To use this method, you need to do two things: (1) identify the demographics of your audience and (2) assess the significance of these demographics to your speaking situation. The importance of sex as a demographic feature to be considered in speaking situations is made plain by an example by Lucas. He said that an art major landed a dream job of conducting tours for people through galleries and talk about the art collection in them. In one of his talks, he kept referring to the artists of the collection as “he,” prompting one of the tourists to point out to him that five paintings in the gallery had been created by women. “This illustrates,” says Lucas (1989), “a problem that continues to plague speakers in all fields.” He adds: “We think of our times as enlightened, but we still encounter people who automatically refer to artists or doctors as ‘he’ and to grade-school teachers or nurses as ‘she.’ A speaker who makes such remarks is almost certain to offend some members of the audience.” Religion is another hot-button issue that you, as a speaker, can unwittingly push, launching an uncalled-for controversy and alienating your audience. Since almost everybody belongs to a particular religious group or belief- system, asserting the righteousness of your own religion can almost certainly trigger negative reactions from your audience.  Racial/ethnic and cultural background is also an important demographic information that can spell the success or failure of your talk. Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s ethnic group—Kapampangan, Ilocano, Cebuano, Tagalog, among other ethnic groups—is superior to others. If you show ethnocentrism in your talk you run the risk of earning the ire of your audience. Remember that culture is relative and no culture is better than another, even though the latter may be described as a primitive culture. Plan your speech guided by a strong conviction to respect all cultures and the people that belong in them. 2. Situational audience analysis, on the other hand, involves identifying “traits of the audience unique to the speaking situation at hand.” These traits “include the size of the audience, attitudes influenced by the physical setting, and the disposition of the audience toward the subject, the speaker and the occasion.” In theories of communication, the message is sent by the sender through the medium amid noise. Noise is anything that prevents the message from being sent to the receiver or from being decoded by the receiver. An example of noise is static caused by interfering electrical signal when you make a cellular phone call. Another is when the physical setup in the room where you are slated to talk is so arranged that communicating with your audience is bound to become a challenge, to say the least. A room without sound proofing against the noise in the street outside is an example of physical or environmental noise. Size can also be a kind of noise or interference that can prevent communication to take place properly. Too large an audience is a challenge for a speaker, but with the aid of technology the problem can be surmounted. More importantly, when you address a huge group you need to be more formal in your presentation to make a maximum impact on your audience. Aside from the size of your audience and the physical setting of your talk, you need to consider three other things in your analysis of audience: (1) your listeners’ interest in the topic of your talk, (2) their knowledge about your topic, and (3) their attitude toward your topic. In a classroom setting, when you give a speech you have a captive audience: your classmates. In the “real” world (e.g., corporate world) when you give a speech, people will attend to listen to your talk because they need it in their work or they are interested in your talk. Even if people are not interested in your talk, you can make it interesting by relating it to your audience’s needs and interests. In a classroom speech, for instance, if you want your audience to become interested in your talk, you have to make them see right away how it is going to be relevant to their lives as students. But interested or not, your audience needs to be understood in terms of another factor: their knowledge of your topic. It is important for you to know how much they know about your topic because it will shape many aspects of  your talk: style, complexity or simplicity, and details. If, after studying them, you learned that many members of your audience are not familiar with your topic, you can vary your planned style of delivery and make it more “user- friendly” without being condescending. You can also add more examples to illustrate your points. Likewise, you need to use a language that is easily understood and try to avoid the jargon of your profession. Sometimes, it happens that speakers are not popular with their audiences simply because of the nature of their profession or line of work. In other words, the audience is not predisposed to believe, or even listen to, the speakers. A lawyer (defending a notorious crime suspect) who is about to give a talk about why s/he does what s/he does for a living may pique the interest of some people. However, it is more likely to happen that s/he will generate a certain degree of hostility from the audience even before s/he stands in front of the rostrum to deliver a speech. This is an extreme example, but the point is this: You need to assess if your audience is disposed toward believing (or liking/loving) your talk or hating you and your guts for even appearing before them. You need to adjust many aspects of your talk accordingly. A rumbling speech, for instance, before an audience that is not predisposed to listen is obviously a disaster on top of another. You should also consider in your analysis of audience the occasion for your speech. There are occasions in which certain topics are taboo. The ban may be explicit or implied. In a purely religious situation, for example, to talk about politics, especially if the details are polarizing, is almost certainly rude. Being unaware of the set of values being collectively upheld by the audience in a given situation can almost certainly cause your speech to fail. GATHERING THE MATERIALS FOR YOUR SPEECH Now that you know a lot about your audience, you can proceed to gathering the materials for your speech. There are three ways you can do this: (1) by reflecting on your own knowledge and experiences; (2) by interviewing other people; (3) by doing library and computer-aided research. Self-reflection Earlier in this chapter, we suggested that in choosing a topic for your talk you should consider your own familiarity, if not expertise, of the topic. This is important because in the gathering of materials for your talk you need to go inward into yourself. You are the first stop in your search for information. Your knowledge and your experiences are major sources of materials. You need to make use of them. Interview Interviewing has been one of the most popular methods of gathering data. It involves two people sharing their views, hence, “inter” and “viewing.” Steinar Kvale (1996), in his book InterViews, explains the importance of interviewing: “If you want to know how people understand their world and their life, why not talk with them? In an interview conversation, the researcher listens to what people themselves tell about their lived world, hears them express their views and opinions in their own words, learns about their views on their work situation and family life, their dreams and hopes.” Interviewing as a research technique, Kvale (1996) adds, “attempts to understand the world from the subjects’ points of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations.” Lucas (1989) identifies four circumstances in which the use of personal interview “can be the most effective means of gathering material”: 1. When you want up-to-the-minute information; 2. When you need information about a fairly narrow subject that might not attract newspaper or other printed coverage; 3. When you have access to a person who has specialized knowledge about a subject and is willing to share that knowledge; and 4. When a particular person’s viewpoint will add interest and force to your speech. In conducting your interview, it will be most fruitful to heed the advice of Carole Rich (2010), a well-known writing coach. According to her, you should: 1. Concentrate on what the person you are interviewing is saying and not on what you will ask next. This ensures that you are catching everything that is being said and that you are showing respect for the interviewee by paying close attention. You can probably jot down notes occasionally if a question crosses your mind but do it quickly and unobtrusively. 2. Listen attentively as you would when you listen to a friend telling you an interesting story. Your next question should be based on your interviewee’s last statement. If you want to move to another topic, do it without cutting off the interviewee in mid-sentence and without offending him or her. For example, preface you sentence with a transition: By the way, … or On another subject …. 3. Think critically when you listen. If you are not sure about something, do not hesitate to ask your interviewee to repeat what s/he has said. Try to control the flow of conversation when you think your source is rambling. 4. Stay quiet. Do not outtalk you source. Do not show that you are smarter than s/he is and that what s/he is saying is nonsense. If you think the source is not making any sense anymore, ask for clarification and listen quietly. 5. Maintain eye contact with your source. Nod to show you are listening. Make her/him feel that you are giving complete attention.  6. “Listen” to visual signals such as fidgeting, frowning, etc. They will tell you more than words about what your source is feeling. In other words, listen with your eyes. 7. Be polite in everything. If your source is rambling or incoherence, do not cut her or him off abruptly and brusquely. Wait for her or him to pause before you move to change the subject. 8. Be curious. Do not pretend that you are because it will sooner or later show. Remember, it is going to be your speech that will make use of all the information that you will gather in the interview. In the end, it will be you as speaker who will benefit. Library and Computer-Aided Research In preparing for a presentation, students tend to ignore the value of the library. To many students, the library is a place to avoid especially because of the dreaded librarians, who are often depicted in popular culture as strict and fearsome. But this should not be the case. On the contrary, the library as source of materials for your speech is without equal. It houses almost everything that you will need as a speaker researching on your topic, especially today when modern librarians have access to the Internet. To maximize your stay in the library you should know beforehand how to navigate its nooks and crannies. You should know how to approach the librarians (they are there to help you, believe it or not) and how to use the card catalogue. Using the card catalogue does not only allow you to find what you are looking for but also allow you to save time looking for books and other materials. PUTTING TOGETHER YOUR SPEECH In writing an essay, you need to follow the structure that has been handed down as the convention of the genre. The structure contains three basic parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Your speech will basically follow this structure. To be readable and easily understood your speech must be organized in a certain way. Organization is crucial. Without it, your speech will most likely confuse and bore your audience. Organization is structure. Just how organization is important is demonstrated by two studies mentioned by Lucas (1989). In one study, the researcher, a college professor, had a well-organized speech scrambled. He then had the two speeches (organized and scrambled) delivered. He learned that, not surprisingly, the audience understood more the organized speech than the scrambled one. In another research conducted in another school by two professors, the audience were asked about their attitudes toward the speakers of the organized and the scrambled speeches. They learned that “the people who heard the well-organized speech believed the speakers to be much more competent and trustworthy than those who heard the scrambled speech.” Lucas has this to say on the ability to organize speeches: This ability is especially vital for speechmaking. Listeners demand coherence. They have little patience with speakers who bounce wildly from idea to idea. Keep in mind that listeners—unlike readers— cannot flip back to a previous page if they trouble grasping a speaker’s idea. In this respect a speech is much like a movie. Just as a director must guarantee that viewers can follow the plot of a film from beginning to end, so must a speaker. Be sure listeners can follow the progression of ideas in a speech from beginning to end. This requires that speeches be organized strategically. They should be put together in particular ways to achieve particular results with particular audiences. Main Points To organize your speech, you need to have your main points, which, according to Lucas, is “the central features of your speech.” For a speech with information as your purpose you can have the following main points: Specific Purpose: To inform my audience of the uses of computer graphics cards. General Idea: The important uses of graphics cards are to boost performance of computers for dedicated applications and to increase the effectiveness and efficiency of cryptocurrency mining. Main Points: 1. Graphic cards are used to boost the performance of computers for dedicated applications. 2. Graphic cards are used to mine cryptocurrencies. For a speech with persuasion as your purpose you can have the following main points: Specific Purpose: To persuade my audience that wearing their school ID’s is important because it shows their pride in their school, it helps in maintaining a safe and secure environment in the school and it teaches the students to become law- abiding citizens. General Idea: Wearing school ID’s is important because it shows the students’ pride in their school, it helps in maintaining a safe and secure environment in the school and it teaches them to become law-abiding citizens. Main Points: 1. Wearing a school ID is important because it shows the students’ pride in their school. 2. Wearing a school ID is important because it helps in maintaining a safe and secure environment in the school. 3. Wearing a school ID is important because it teaches the students to become law- abiding citizens. PATTERNS OF ORGANIZATION To organize your main points, you can use the following patterns of organization: (1) chronological order; (2) spatial order; (3) causal order; (4) problem-solution order; and (5) topical order. A chronologically-ordered speech follows a time pattern. When you tell a story in your speech, it is best to use the chronological order because a story told from beginning to end is easier to understand than one that is told haphazardly. An informational speech that details your rise from being an ordinary freshman student to being the president of the University Student Council in your senior year is best told using the chronological order of arranging your facts. You can probably begin with the day a fellow freshman student asked you to attend a meeting of the USC and how, from the single moment, you fell in love with student leadership. The chronological order is also used in explaining a process or showing how to do something such as assembling a bicycle or a personal computer (PC). When you talk about the parts of a PC, you need to start from a particular part. For example, you can begin with the central processing unit (CPU) and then move on to the other parts. The sequence may be from top to bottom or vice versa. This is called spatial order. Discussing how you can get from point A to point B on a map is an example of using spatial order. While you can use the chronological order and the spatial order of ideas in persuasive speech, you will more likely benefit from the use of the causal order as you argue your case before an audience. “Speeches arranged in causal order organize main points so as to show a cause-effect relationship,” explains Lucas. In speeches arranged in causal order, you have two main points. One main point is focused on the cause(s) and the other main point on the effect(s). For example, if your purpose is to persuade your audience that playing computer games more than two hours a day is detrimental to their well-being, then you should start with the cause and argue your way toward the effects. Speeches can also be arranged by, first, identifying a problem, and then proposing a solution. This is called the problem-solution order. Specific Purpose: To persuade teachers to keep upgrading what they know in their field of academic discipline. Main Points: 1. Teachers have not kept abreast of developments in their fields of academic disciplines, to the detriment of their students.  2. Teachers should be required to earn credit points by attending seminars before their license to teach can be renewed. Finally, speeches can be arranged according to topical order. Lucas explains how you can do this: Topical order results when you divide the speech topic into subtopics, each of which becomes a main point in the speech. The main points are not part of the chronological, spatial, causal, or problem-solution sequence, but are simply parts of the whole. Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about the four basic structural elements of an HTML document. Central Idea: The four basic structural elements of an HTML document are the document declaration, the element, the element, and the element. Main Points: 1. The document declaration tells the Internet browser that the document is an HTML. 2. The element wraps the entire document in HTML. 3. The element holds metadata associated with the page like the description of the page or the text that appears in a browser title bar. 4. The element holds all the content displayed in a browser. Talk Tools from TED in his book “Ted Talks: The Official TED Guide to Public Speaking,” Chris Anderson gives us five things to remember when we give speeches. First, “Knowledge cannot be pushed into a brain” and thus “has to be pulled in.” He adds: “Before you can build an idea in someone else’s mind, you need their permission. People are naturally cautious about opening up their minds—the most precious thing they own —to complete strangers. You need to find a way to overcome that caution. And the way you do that is to make visible the human being cowering inside you.” Anderson says you need to “get personal” with your audience to establish connection with them. You need to: (1) make eye contact, right from the start; (2) disarm you audience by revealing your own vulnerability; (3) make your audience laugh through humor; (4) do not bring your ego on stage; and (5) tell a story. Second, telling a story is so crucial in speeches that it needs a more detailed discussion here. Anderson says that “the human mind coevolved with storytelling,” adding that “many of the best talks are anchored on storytelling.” And when it comes to telling a story on stage, Anderson bids us to remember the following: 1. Base in on a character your audience can empathize with. 2. Build tension, whether through curiosity, social intrigue, or actual danger.  3. Offer the right level of detail. Too little and the story is not vivid. Too much and it gets bogged down. 4. End with a satisfying resolution, whether funny, moving, or revealing. Anderson illustrates his point by comparing the following two ways of telling the same story. Here is an ineffective way of telling the story. I learned trust from my father when I was eight years old and we got caught in a storm while out fishing for mackerel. We failed to catch a single one before the storm hit. Dad knew the boat was going to sink, because it was one of those Saturn brand inflatable boats, which are usually pretty strong, but this one had been punctured one and Dad thought it might happen again. In any case, the storm was too big for an inflatable boat and it was already leaking. So, he called the Coast Guard rescue service, who, back then, were available 24/7, unlike today. He told them our location, and then, to avoid the risk of getting trapped underwater, he put a life jacket on me and threw me overboard before jumping in himself. We then waited for the Coast Guard to come and, sure enough, 15 minutes later the helicopter showed up – I think it was a Sikorsky MH60 Jayhawk—and we were fine. Here is the effective version: Once, when I was eight years old, my father took me fishing. We were in a tiny boat, five miles from shore, when a massive storm blew in. Dad put a life jacket on me and whispered in my ear, “Do you trust me, son?” I nodded. He threw me overboard. [pause] I kid you not. Just tossed me over! I hit the water and bobbed up to the surface, gasping for breath. It was shockingly cold. The waves were terrifying. Monstrous. Then … Dad dived in after me. Continuation: We watched in horror as our little boat flipped and sank. But he was holding me the whole time, telling me it was going to be OK. Fifteen minutes later, the Coast Guard helicopter arrived. It turned out that Dad knew the boat was damaged and was going to sink, and he had called them without exact location. He guessed it was better to chuck me in the open sea than risk getting trapped when the boat flipped. And that is how I learned the true meaning of the word trust. Third, learn to explain difficult concepts by: (1) starting your talk right; (2) making your audience curious; (3) bringing in concept one by one; (4) using metaphor; and (5) using examples. To illustrate, Anderson used a TED talk by Harvard psychologist Dan Gilbert, who successfully explained to his audience the concept of “synthesized happiness.” Gilbert began his talk by “starting right.” He said: “When you have 21 minutes to speak, two million years seems like a really long time.” This remark drew laughter and caught the attention of the audience. Continuing, he said: “But evolutionarily, two million years is nothing. And yet in two million years, the human brain has nearly tripled in mass, going from the one-and-a-quarter- pound brain of our ancestor here, [Homo] habilis, to the almost three-pound meatloaf that everybody here has between their ears. What is it about a big brain that nature was so eager for every one of us to have one?” Gilbert’s question sparked the curiosity of the audience, causing them to wait for more. However, when he brings out the concepts that he wanted to explain, he did so one by one. He started with prefrontal cortex, and then experience simulator, until he was able to explain synthesized happiness. In explaining “experience simulator” he used the metaphor of flight simulator to make it easier for his audience to understand. And along the way he uses examples. Fourth, persuasion means “convincing an audience that the way they currently see the world is not quite right.” This is done by “taking down the parts that are not working, as well as rebuilding something better.” In other words, you reason to “change minds forever.” How do you do this seemingly gargantuan task? Anderson explains that priming is “the key to prompting that worldview shift is to take the journey one step at a time, preparing our minds in several different ways before getting to the main argument.” Priming “is not a rigorous argument; it is simply a way of nudging someone in your direction,” he says. He cites, as example, the speech by psychologist Barry Schwartz who in his TED talk successfully built the case that “in numerous circumstances, too much choice actually makes us unhappy.” Schwartz primed his talk through the following: There was a time when jeans came in one flavor, and you thought them, and they fit like crap, they were really uncomfortable, but if you wore them and washed them enough times, they started to feel OK. I went to replace my jeans after years of wearing these old ones, and I said, “I want a pair of jeans. Here’s my size.” And the shopkeeper said, “Do you want slim fit, easy fit, relaxed fit? You want button fly or zipper fly? You want stonewashed or acid-washed? Do you want them distressed? You want boot cut, tapered, blah blah blah.” By showing his stress over too many choices, Schwartz primed his audience to what he was about to say. He made what he would later on point out – about too many choices making us unhappy instead of the other way around – obvious and natural. Lastly, the most direct way of telling your audience about your idea is to show it. Anderson calls it “revelation.” You can do this in three broad ways: 1. The Wonder Walk. It is a talk based on the revelation of a succession of images or wonder moments. In this approach, you build a sense of wonder in your audience. You can arrange your images in such a way that the next one will be highly anticipated. A 5-minute TED talk by David Gallo, a geologist, about the aweinspiring animals under the sea showed the power of carefully arranged images to deliver your talk. 2. The Dynamic Demo. If what you are revealing is not just visual, Anderson says, if it is a technology or a process or an invention, then you need the  audience to see it works. You need a demonstration. An example is a talk by inventor Markus Fischer. Instead of describing his invention—a robot seagull that flies like a true one—he made it fly, to the amazement of the audience. 3. The Dreamscape. “Some of the most powerful speeches in history have been powerful precisely because they communicated a dream with irresistible eloquence and passion,” says Anderson. This “ability to pattern the world in our minds and then re-pattern it to create a world that does not actually exist but someday might” is “so important a skill that we have multiple words to label its different flavors: imagination, invention, innovation, design, vision.” There are many ways by which you can share your dreams: words, images, demonstrations. A very appropriate example is Martin Luther King Jr.’s 1963 speech at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. about his dream that someday all people, regardless of race, would be truly equal. EMAIL MESSAGES AND MEMOS The coming of the Internet era ushered in new technologies that made communication in the workplace more effective and efficient. An example of a digital technology that revolutionized how we send and receive messages is the electronic mail or email. It is, according to Guffey (2008), “the communication channel of choice for exchanging information within organization.” Stages of Writing an Email Message or Memo How do we write email messages and memos? There are three stages (Guffey, 2008): 1. Analysis, anticipation, and adaptation 2. Research, organization, and composition 3. Revision, proofreading, and evaluation In the first stage, which is equivalent to the more familiar term prewriting, you ask yourself the following questions: Do you really need to write the email message or memo? Should you send your message as email or should you simply say it face-to-face? What is the purpose of your message? How will the receiver of your email message or memo react? How can you save your reader’s time (that is, should you use bullets or asterisks to list the things you want to say? In stage two, you make an outline of your message or memo and you list down the ideas you want to send. Remember that each idea or assertion or claim that you will write needs supporting details. In the third stage, you revise for clarity and correctness and be ready for feedback. When you revise, take the point of view of your prospective readers. Ask yourself: If I were the reader, would the message or memo be clear to me? Finally, do not forget to include in your email message a line or two asking for your reader’s feedback. Parts of the Email Message or Memo An email message or memo has the following parts: 1. Sender Line. This is where the name and email address of the sender is written. 2. Receiver Line. This is where the name and email address of the recipient of your message or memo is written. 3. Date Line. This is where the date: day, month, year, and time, is written. 4. Subject Line. This is where the subject of your email message or memo is written. The subject should not be a one-word heading and should contain a verb. For example, the subject Juan dela Cruz or Appointment is unclear, but the subject Juan dela Cruz is appointed IT manager is clear. 5. Opening. For non-sensitive information you can be direct. For example: Please prepare for a visit by the schools division superintendents of Central Luzon who will evaluate our compliance with the “No Student Left Behind” program of the Department of Education. 6. Body. This is where the author of the email message or memo writes the reasons for writing and explains the message thoroughly. 7. Closing. This part, according to Guffey (2008) generally ends with (a) action information, dates or deadlines; (b) a summary of the message; or (c) a closing thought. GENERALIZATION: The skill of public speaking is just as important as reading and writing. In speech making, there are pre-writing activities that should be followed: (1) selecting a topic and purpose, (2) analyzing your audience, and (3) gathering the materials that you will need to prepare your speech. To be readable and easily understood your speech must be organized in a certain way. The structure contains three basic parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. To organize your main points, you can use the following patterns of organization: (1) chronological order, which follows a time pattern; (2) spatial order, which discusses how you can get from point A to point B on a map; (3) causal order, which organizes main points so as to show a cause-effect relationship; (4) problem-solution order, arranges first by identifying a problem, and then proposing a solution; and (5) topical order, which divides the speech topic into subtopics, each of which becomes a main point in the speech.  The most direct way of telling your audience about your idea is to show it. Anderson calls it “revelation.” You can do this in three broad ways: (1) The Wonder Walk, (2) The Dynamic Demo, and (3) The Dreamscape. According to Guffey (2008), there are three stages in writing emails and memos: (1) Analysis, anticipation, and adaptation, (2) Research, organization, and composition, and (3) Revision, proofreading, and evaluation. REFERENCES: Manzano, B.M. et al (2018). Communication for Various Purposes. In B. Mazano, M.V. Arador, and M.A. Ladia. (Eds.). Purposive Communication for College Freshmen (pp. 185-209). Plaridel, Bulacan: St. Andrew Publishing House