Gender & Education PDF

Gender & Education  Gender Education and Overviews/Definiti on  Gender underpinnings of Social and Biological Reproduction  Implications of Gender Differences in Education  Gender Issues/Trends ...

Gender & Education  Gender Education and Overviews/Definiti on  Gender underpinnings of Social and Biological Reproduction  Implications of Gender Differences in Education  Gender Issues/Trends  Overview The study of gender and education encompasses gender differences in educational outcomes such as achievement, attainment, and experiences within the education system. This field also moves beyond the study of how gender influences educational outcomes and incorporates how these differences impact the labor market, family formation, and health outcomes.  EDUCATION Education is GENDER interpreted in a broad Gender refers to sense to cover both the socially formal and informal constructed roles, behaviors, activities aspects, including pre-school, primary, DEFINITIONS and attributes that and secondary a given society education; families considers and youth cultures appropriate for men inside and outside and women. schools; adult Masculine and community, further feminine are and higher education; examples of gender vocational education categories. and training, media education; and parental education. Social scientists and educational researchers paid relatively little attention to issues of gender and education until the 1970s, when questions emerged concerning equity in girls’ and women’s access to education across the world. Researchers documented a link between increasing rates of female education in developing countries and a subsequent decline in fertility rates (e.g., Boserup 1970). In the context of an emerging global economy, increasing female representation in primary and secondary education was cited as an important factor in promoting national economic development, and therefore seen as a vehicle for social change. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF WOMEN AND MEN IN EDUCATION Classroom, private studies, At home (reading and tutoring and colleges writing, music literature (Philosophy, Mathematics, and foreign languages). Rhetoric, training in self- Much more restricted discipline, other academic knowledge. subjects WOMEN’S MEN’S EDUCATION EDUCATION Aimed at teaching Upon the graduation of how to fulfill women’s colleges they took places “natural” roles (good among the ruling class as mothers and partners ministers, lawyers and other for their elite professional job husbands)  Gender complexities in Millennium Development Goals: Social and Biological Reproduction The term ‘reproduction’ is a chaotic concept which not only refers to biological reproduction but also includes the social reproduction of the family. Social reproduction is meant the care and maintenance of the household. Biological reproduction encompasses: Social reproduction: childbearing wide range of tasks related to housework early nurturing of infants (only women food preparation are physiologically capable of care for the sick (usually more time-consuming in performing) developing countries than in the industrialized world) In most countries women are also expected to ensure the reproduction of the labor force by assuming responsibility for the health, education and socialization of children. Poor countries generally offer less state assistance for these tasks than is provided in post-industrial countries.  Gender complexities in Millennium Development Goals: Social and Biological Reproduction 1990s- fertility proportion had fallen to 40 percent As women move to cities, become better educated and find new opportunities for work and self-development outside the home, the birth rate tends to fall. In cities children are less useful as supplemental labor and are more costly to maintain. Eight explanations have been advanced for this fertility transition: mortality reduction of infants and children; higher costs of raising children and reduced economic contributions from children as years in school increase; opportunity costs of childbearing for parents, especially mothers; transition from extended to nuclear families leading to changing values and gender roles; traditional societal support for large families declines with modernization; improved access to contraception and abortion; later marriage; increased spread of ideas and practices which encourage lower fertility. GENDER & EDUCATION In looking at gender differences in educational outcomes, it is important to distinguish between three sets of outcomes: (i)educational participation and attainment (ii)educational achievement (iii)field of study  Educational Participation & Attainment There has been a significant relative shift in the patterns of male and female attainment in recent years. Historically, men in Western countries have tended to have higher educational attainment levels than women. Currently, among the adult population (that is, those aged 25 to 64), men are found to have more years of schooling and are more likely to reach upper secondary education (or higher) than women in two out of three developed countries. If only the youngest age-group is considered (that is, those aged 25 to 34), the historical pattern is reversed with female attainment levels higher than male rates in two out of three countries. Currently, upper secondary graduation rates are higher among young women than young men in most countries.  Educational Participation & Attainment There has been a significant relative shift in the patterns of male and female attainment in recent years. In the industrialized world of the North there were virtually no gender differences in literacy and this was true also of South Africa and the Philippines and most of the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean Women had the lowest adult literacy rates in West Africa and South Asia but more women than men were enrolled in tertiary education in most countries of Central and Eastern Europe, Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Middle East, with the greatest recorded imbalance being in Barbados in 1998 where the female-to-male ratio was 228. However, UNESCO estimated that there were 113 million children not attending school in 1998 of which 60 per cent were girls (  Educational Participation & Attainment There has been a significant relative shift in the patterns of male and female attainment in recent years. Women achieve lower levels of education than men in the majority of developing countries because of distance between home and school and lack of transport, which may make it dangerous for girls to travel to school. The costs of school in terms of the loss of the child’s labour at home and the financial burden of paying for school supplies, suitable clothing such as uniforms, school fees and bribes to teachers also means that parents may decide not to educate daughters. EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Ability test results indicated significant gender differences in verbal, quantitative and spatial ability : (Maccoby and Jacklin, 1974) -girls scoring higher in tests of verbal ability -boys achieving higher scores in relation to quantitative and spatial ability. -women are more likely to obtain a ‘good’ undergraduate degree (that is, at least an upper second class honors award) -men are more likely than women to achieve the highest award, that of first class honors (Smith and Naylor, 2001)  FIELD OF STUDY Gender differences persist in the types of courses taken within the educational system: Engineering courses at upper secondary level tend to be predominantly male. Health/welfare, arts/humanities, education courses and social science/business courses are C E R T I F I C AT E disproportionately female.  GENDER I SS U ES / TRE N D S Gender Inequalities in 01 Education Buchman, C., T.A. DiPrete, and A. McDaniel. 2008. 02 Gender Gap in Education Grant, M. J., and J. R. Behrman. 2010. 03 Gender Equity in Education Paqueo, V. B., and Orbeta A. C., 2019. GENDER INEQUALITIES IN EDUCATION In educational institutions, gender inequality has been experienced. Girls have been discriminated against in terms of various aspects as compared to their male counterparts. The primary aspect in terms of gender inequality has been experienced is in participation: Example: Girls were provided with less participation opportunities as compared to their male counterparts and hence, it led to prevalence of gender inequality. Therefore, it is vital to formulate measures and programs that are focused upon making provision of equal rights and opportunities to girls, not only within the course of acquisition of education, but also in the implementation of other job duties  FACTORS CAUSING GENDER INEQUALITY IN EDUCATION 1. Condition of Poverty 2. Discriminatory Treatment 3. Occurrence of Criminal and among Girls Violence Acts 4. Child Marriage 5. Education of the Parents 6. Occupation of the Parents  GENDER GAP IN EDUCATION Conventional wisdom holds that gender gaps in schooling favoring males in developing countries generally are large, though probably declining. The gender gap is “the discrepancy in opportunities, status, attitudes, etc., between men and women” (Oxford dictionary, 2012) which still exists in the ever equalizing world in which we live in today. The gender gap appears in several areas in society such as in politics, employment and education although gender inequalities have the biggest impact on education policies (Marsh, 2009).  PHILIPPINES: Gender Equity in Education Historically, Filipino males were somewhat more educated than females. Now the males are lagging behind the females and the You can Resize without education gender gap is widening. This reversal was predictable early losing quality on in the 70s before it manifested itself in national statistics. You can Change Fill Color & Line Color First, there should be greater clarity about the meaning of the gender equality objective in education for situations where boys are lagging behind girls. Things to do to effectively remove existing impediments Second, how to achieve this more inclusive objective also needs to to schooling and be clarified. On this, more evidence-informed strategies and policy learning: tools are needed. FREE Third, reducing the gender gap should mean in practice improving PPT the educational status of the educationally disadvantaged gender TEMPLATES group (albeit, males in the Philippines) at a faster rate than the www.allppt.com increase in academic achievement of the opposite sex.  PHILIPPINES: Gender Equity in Education You can Resize without losing quality You can Change Fill Color & Line Color Fourth, a mix of interventions to modify household, teacher and school attitudes, norms and practices should be pursued to Things to do to eliminate unfair gender biases that unjustifiably impede effectively remove children’s right to good education. existing impediments to schooling and learning: Fifth, to find, design and implement a win-win mix of FREE interventions, more and better ideas based on analytically sound empirical research is needed. PPT TEMPLATES www.allppt.com The movement to change these traditional mindsets may be slow, but it is essential for real and long-term change. Education and awareness are crucial. In Central Luzon, the Department of Education has begun to train teachers to ensure that all lessons use a gender lens in the curriculum, textbooks, teaching and learning, and in the design of school facilities. In addition, schools can work in tandem with companies to sponsor and mentor women to encourage more broad participation in the economy. The Philippines stands out as a beacon in the Asia-Pacific region for its work on reducing gender gaps. The country can build on this strong foundation to further empower women and boost the nation’s economic dynamism and growth  Looking Forward Gender equality remains unfinished business in every country of the world. Women and girls have less access to education and healthcare, too often lack economic autonomy and are under-represented in decision-making at all levels. The progress that has been made towards gender equality over the past quarter of a century, though slow and incremental, does however show that change is possible. Legal reform, strengthening gender-responsive social protection and public service delivery, quotas for women’s representation, and support for women’s movements are all strategies that have made a difference and should be scaled up. Recent trends analyze gender equality as a “relational process” through the educational systems, norms and values are institutionalized within them. The operation of rights is viewed as circular– rights in each of these aspects linking positively to other rights. It promotes both gender parity and gender equality. The three components are: 1. Rights to Education 2. Rights within Education 3. Rights through Education  Right to Education - describes gender parity Gender parity means the Educational (parity) indicators do not tell us about equal participation of boys and processes of change/ reproduction in everyday life. Further, girls in different aspects of educational indicators do not bring into focus the actual education experience of schooling. Indicators of gender parity in education include: The numbers of boys and girls enrolled in education and at intake in grade one The numbers of boys and girls who survive up to grade 5 (and thus the numbers that drop out) Regularity of attendance of boys and girls The numbers of girls and boys who repeat years of schooling The average years of schooling attained for boys and girls The transitions of boys and girls between levels of education (pre-school-primary; primary-secondary; secondary-high school/ vocational] The number of female and male teachers Literacy levels of boys and girls, men and women  RIGHT WITHIN EDUCATION Gender equality or rights within education thus refers to the right of men and women to non-discrimination in educational opportunitiesGende Rights within education measure Main Focus: equality & quality Learning content Educational institutions should Teaching method and function in ways that do not impose process or maintain gender stereotypes or Subject choice promote institutional barriers to the Assessment modes range of possibilities that boys and Management of peer girls, men and women can enjoy in relationships relation to the education offer. Learning outcomes Rights within education relates to equality of treatment, which in turn is reflected in quality of outcome  RIGHT WITHIN EDUCATION Gender equality or rights within education thus refers to the right of men and women to non-discrimination in educational opportunities Rights within education measure equality & quality Girls may also be vulnerable In rural schools facilities, especially to sexual harassment in sanitation, are often poor and there schools and so may are few women teachers, making jeopardize their marriage such schools especially unattractive potentials. to girls. For adult women it may be hard for them to attend adult literacy classes because of the demands of their reproductive tasks. Without literacy women may not be aware of their legal rights and may be unable to benefit from opportunities for further training.  RIGHT THROUGH EDUCATION To what extent does education strengthens gender equality outside the sphere of education? The importance of focusing on ' rights through education' becomes significant particularly when we review evidence of the inequalities which continue to face women in the world of employment, work and political representation-the public arena. EXAMPLE: - In 2011, 73% of women aged 15-64 were employed. - Women occupy 40% of parliamentary seats and 40% of board seats in listed companies.  Gender Balance However, the gender balance in higher education in the developing world has improved very rapidly. Between 1965 and 1985 estimated female enrolment in tertiary education in southern Yemen and Qatar increased from 0 to 19 and 57 per cent of the total respectively; in Guatemala it increased from 9 to 28 per cent and in Brazil from 25 to 48 per cent.  Gender Balance In Latin America as a whole more women than men were enrolled in tertiary education by the end of the 1990s, except in Costa Rica, Honduras, Mexico and Peru. However, access to higher education is strongly dependent on class, location and income.  Gender Balance Within the education system women tend to be channelled into certain subject ghettos, such as nursing, education and social work, while the courses leading to the best-paid jobs, such as medicine, law and engineering, are still dominated by men.  Gender Balance The expansion of women in tertiary education, as has occurred in the industrialized North, is related to the expansion of jobs for educated women and, especially in the Middle East, to a growing interest by men in better educated wives. WE NEED TO BE GENDER RELEVANT NOT GENDER SPECIFIC. WE SHOULD GET GO BEYOND SINGLE-SEX EDUCATION. FOCUS ON A MORE WHOLESOME WAYS OF LEARNING. THANK YOU  REFERENCES American Association of University Women (1999) Gender Gaps: Where Schools Still Fail Our Children. Marlowe, New Bailey, M. (Ed.) (2002) The Jossey Bass Reader on Gender in Education. Jossey-Bass, San Francisco. Boserup, (1970) Women’s Role in Economic Development. Allen & Unwin, New York. Bradley, (2000) The Incorporation of Women into Higher Education: Paradoxical Outcomes? Sociology of Education 73: 1 18. Buchman, C., T.A. DiPrete, and A. McDaniel. 2008. Gender Inequalities in Education Correll, (2004) Constraints into Preferences: Gender, Status and Emerging Career Aspirations. American Sociological Review 69: 93 113. Grant, M. J., and J. R. Behrman. 2010. Gender Gaps in Educational Jacobs, A. (1996) Gender Inequality and Higher Education. Annual Review of Sociology 22: 153 85. Sadker, & Sadker, D. (1994) Failing at Fairness: How Our Schools Cheat Girls. Simon & Schuster, New York. Momsen,Janet (2010) 2nd ed. Gender and Development, London and New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group Paqueo, V. B., and Orbeta A. C., 2019. Philippines: Gender Equity in Education