Disorders of the Pleura PDF

University of the Philippines ­ Manila Access Provided by: Ha...

University of the Philippines ­ Manila Access Provided by: Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, 21e Chapter 294: Disorders of the Pleura Richard W. Light* *Deceased. PLEURAL EFFUSION The pleural space lies between the lung and the chest wall and normally contains a very thin layer of fluid, which serves as a coupling system. A pleural effusion is present when there is an excess quantity of fluid in the pleural space. Etiology Pleural fluid accumulates when pleural fluid formation exceeds pleural fluid absorption. Normally, fluid enters the pleural space from the capillaries in the parietal pleura and is removed via the lymphatics in the parietal pleura. Fluid also can enter the pleural space from the interstitial spaces of the lung via the visceral pleura or from the peritoneal cavity via small holes in the diaphragm. The lymphatics have the capacity to absorb 20 times more fluid than is formed normally. Accordingly, a pleural effusion may develop when there is excess pleural fluid formation (from the interstitial spaces of the lung, the parietal pleura, or the peritoneal cavity) or when there is decreased fluid removal by the lymphatics. Diagnostic Approach Patients suspected of having a pleural effusion should undergo chest imaging to diagnose its extent. Chest ultrasound has replaced the lateral decubitus x­ray in the evaluation of suspected pleural effusions and as a guide to thoracentesis. When a patient is found to have a pleural effusion, an effort should be made to determine the cause (Fig. 294­1). The first step is to determine whether the effusion is a transudate or an exudate. A transudative pleural effusion occurs when systemic factors that influence the formation and absorption of pleural fluid are altered. The leading causes of transudative pleural effusions in the United States are left ventricular failure and cirrhosis. An exudative pleural effusion occurs when local factors that influence the formation and absorption of pleural fluid are altered. The leading causes of exudative pleural effusions are bacterial pneumonia, malignancy, viral infection, and pulmonary embolism. The primary reason for making this differentiation is that additional diagnostic procedures are indicated with exudative effusions to define the cause of the local disease. FIGURE 294­1 Approach to the diagnosis of pleural effusions. CHF, congestive heart failure; CT, computed tomography; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; PE, pulmonary embolism; PF, pleural fluid; TB, tuberculosis. Downloaded 2024­8­4 10:33 A Your IP is 49.147.196.41 Chapter 294: Disorders of the Pleura, Richard W. Light* Page 1 / 8 ©2024 McGraw Hill. All Rights Reserved. Terms of Use Privacy Policy Notice Accessibility FIGURE 294­1 University of the Philippines ­ Manila Access Provided by: Approach to the diagnosis of pleural effusions. CHF, congestive heart failure; CT, computed tomography; LDH, lactate dehydrogenase; PE, pulmonary embolism; PF, pleural fluid; TB, tuberculosis. Transudative and exudative pleural effusions are distinguished by measuring the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and protein levels in the pleural fluid. Exudative pleural effusions meet at least one of the following criteria, whereas transudative pleural effusions meet none: 1. Pleural fluid protein/serum protein >0.5 2. Pleural fluid LDH/serum LDH >0.6 3. Pleural fluid LDH more than two­thirds the normal upper limit for serum Downloaded These criteria 2024­8­4 misidentify10:33 ~25%AofYour IP is 49.147.196.41 transudates as exudates. If one or more of the exudative criteria are met and the patient is clinically thought to have Chapter 294: Disorders of the Pleura, Richardthe a condition producing a transudative effusion, W.difference Light* between the protein levels in the serum and the pleural fluid should be measured.Page 2 / 8 If this ©2024 McGraw Hill. All Rights Reserved. Terms of Use Privacy Policy Notice Accessibility gradient is >31 g/L (3.1 g/dL), the exudative categorization by these criteria can be ignored because almost all such patients have a transudative pleural effusion. 1. Pleural fluid protein/serum protein >0.5 University of the Philippines ­ Manila 2. Pleural fluid LDH/serum LDH >0.6 Access Provided by: 3. Pleural fluid LDH more than two­thirds the normal upper limit for serum These criteria misidentify ~25% of transudates as exudates. If one or more of the exudative criteria are met and the patient is clinically thought to have a condition producing a transudative effusion, the difference between the protein levels in the serum and the pleural fluid should be measured. If this gradient is >31 g/L (3.1 g/dL), the exudative categorization by these criteria can be ignored because almost all such patients have a transudative pleural effusion. If a patient has an exudative pleural effusion, the following tests on the pleural fluid should be obtained: description of the appearance of the fluid, glucose level, differential cell count, microbiologic studies, and cytology. Effusion Due to Heart Failure The most common cause of pleural effusion is left ventricular failure. The effusion occurs because the increased amounts of fluid in the lung interstitial spaces exit in part across the visceral pleura; this overwhelms the capacity of the lymphatics in the parietal pleura to remove fluid. In patients with heart failure, a diagnostic thoracentesis should be performed if the effusions are not bilateral and comparable in size, if the patient is febrile, or if the patient has pleuritic chest pain to verify that the patient has a transudative effusion. Otherwise, the patient’s heart failure is treated. If the effusion persists despite therapy, a diagnostic thoracentesis should be performed. A pleural fluid N­terminal pro­brain natriuretic peptide (NT­ proBNP) level >1500 pg/mL is virtually diagnostic of an effusion that is secondary to congestive heart failure. Hepatic Hydrothorax Pleural effusions occur in ~5% of patients with cirrhosis and ascites. The predominant mechanism is the direct movement of peritoneal fluid through small openings in the diaphragm into the pleural space. The effusion is usually right­sided and frequently is large enough to produce severe dyspnea. Parapneumonic Effusion Parapneumonic effusions are associated with bacterial pneumonia, lung abscess, or bronchiectasis and are probably the most common cause of exudative pleural effusion in the United States. Empyema refers to a grossly purulent effusion. Patients with aerobic bacterial pneumonia and pleural effusion present with an acute febrile illness consisting of chest pain, sputum production, and leukocytosis. Patients with anaerobic infections present with a subacute illness with weight loss, a brisk leukocytosis, mild anemia, and a history of some factor that predisposes them to aspiration. The possibility of a parapneumonic effusion should be considered whenever a patient with bacterial pneumonia is initially evaluated. The presence of free pleural fluid can be demonstrated with a lateral decubitus radiograph, computed tomography (CT) of the chest, or ultrasound. If the free fluid separates the lung from the chest wall by >10 mm, a therapeutic thoracentesis should be performed. Factors indicating the likely need for a procedure more invasive than a thoracentesis (in increasing order of importance) include the following: 1. Loculated pleural fluid 2. Pleural fluid pH