Cognitive Psychology Chapter 2 PDF

Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e Chapter 2: Cognitive...

Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5e Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Chapter Objectives (1 of 3) By the end of this chapter, you should be able to: 02.01: Describe the “levels-of-analysis” approach as it applies to the study of the mind in cognitive neuroscience. 02.02: Contrast Camillo Golgi’s now disproven nerve net model with Santiago Ramon y Cajal’s neuron doctrine of brain organization. 02.03: Explain how the rate of neural firing is related to the intensity of stimulation and to the magnitude of sensory experience. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Chapter Objectives (2 of 3) 02.04: Describe how the hierarchical processing of visual information contributes to the representation of complex visual stimuli such as specific faces or objects. 02.05: Explain how specificity coding, population coding, and sparse coding could represent sensory information in the brain. 02.06: Describe evidence for the localization of function within the brain based on findings from neuropsychology, neuronal recordings, and brain imaging studies. 02.07: Explain what is meant by the concept of distributed neural representation. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Chapter Objectives (3 of 3) 02.08: Distinguish between structural connectivity and functional connectivity of neural networks. 02.09: Describe the dynamic nature of activity of different functional networks, including the default mode network, during different types or stages of cognition. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 2.1 Levels of Analysis Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Levels of Analysis (1 of 2) We do not examine topics of interest from a single perspective; we look at them from multiple angles and different points of view Each “viewpoint” can add small amounts of information that, when considered together, lead to greater understanding Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Levels of Analysis (2 of 2) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Activity: Knowledge Check—Question (1 of 2) Try to answer this questions on your own before moving to the next slide. Arrange the following from the simplest to most complex level of analysis: – Brain structures – Groups of brain structures – Nerves (bundles of neurons) – Neurons – Chemical processes – Behavior – Brain activity Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Activity: Knowledge Check—Answer (1 of 2) Arrange the following from the simplest to most complex level of analysis: – Chemical processes – Neurons – Nerves (bundles of neurons) – Brain structures – Groups of brain structures – Brain activity – Behavior Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 2.2 Neurons: Basic Principles Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Nerve Nets and the Neuron Doctrine (1 of 2) Early concept of interconnected neurons creating a nerve net, similar to a highway network – Streets are connected without stop signs – This allows for almost nonstop, continuous communication of signals throughout the network Contradicted by the neuron doctrine – Ramon y Cajal – Individual nerve cells transmit signals and are not continuously linked with other cells Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Nerve Nets and the Neuron Doctrine (2 of 2) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Building Blocks of the Nervous System (1 of 3) Neurons: cells specialized to create, receive, and transmit information in the nervous system Each neuron has a cell body, an axon, and dendrites Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Building Blocks of the Nervous System (2 of 3) Cell body: contains mechanisms to keep cell alive Dendrites: multiple branches reaching from the cell body, which receive information from other neurons Axon: tube filled with fluid that transmits electrical signal to other neurons Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Building Blocks of the Nervous System (3 of 3) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Optional Activity: Written Reflection (1 of 2) Take 2 minutes to respond to the following question: – How is Golgi’s “nerve net” model different from Ramon y Cajal’s “neuron doctrine”? Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  How Neurons Communicate (1 of 6) Action potential – Neuron receives signal from environment – Information travels down the axon of that neuron to the dendrites of another neuron Measuring action potentials – Microelectrodes pick up electrical signal – Placed near axon – Active for 1 second Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. How Neurons Communicate (2 of 6) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  How Neurons Communicate (3 of 6) 1 In practice, most recordings are achieved with the tip of the electrode positioned just outside the neuron because it is technically difficult to insert electrodes into the neuron, especially if it is small. However, if the electrode tip is close enough to the neuron, the electrode can pick up the signals generated by the neuron. Figure 2.5 Recording an action potential as it travels down an axon. (a) When the nerve is at rest, there is a difference in charge, called the resting potential, of −70 millivolts (mV) between the inside and outside of the axon. The difference in charge between the recording and reference electrodes is fed into a computer and displayed on a computer monitor. This difference in charge is displayed on the right. (b) As the nerve impulse, indicated by the red band, passes the electrode, the inside of the fiber near the electrode becomes more positive. (c) As the nerve impulse moves past the electrode, the charge in the fiber becomes more negative. (d) Eventually the neuron returns to its resting state. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  How Neurons Communicate (4 of 6) Measuring action potentials – Size is not measured; it remains consistent – The rate of firing is measured  Low-intensity stimulus: slow firing  High-intensity stimulus: fast firing Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. How Neurons Communicate (5 of 6) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  How Neurons Communicate (6 of 6) Synapse: space between axon of one neuron and dendrite or cell body of another When the action potential reaches the end of the axon, synaptic vesicles open and release chemical neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters, chemicals that affect the electrical signal of the receiving neuron, cross the synapse and bind with the receiving dendrites Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 2.3 Representation by Neural Firing Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Principle of Neural Representation Definition of the mind: – a system that creates representations of the world, so we can act on it to achieve goals Principle of neural representation: – Everything a person experiences is based on representations in the person’s nervous system. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Feature Detectors (1 of 2) Hubel & Wiesel (1960s) research with visual stimuli in cats Feature detectors: – neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Feature Detectors (2 of 2) Experience-dependent plasticity – the structure of the brain changes with experience Kittens exposed to vertical-only stimuli over time could only perceive verticals in normal stimuli – demonstrated that perception is determined by neurons that fire to specific qualities of a stimulus Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Hierarchical Processing When we perceive different objects, we do so in a specific order that moves from lower to higher areas of the brain The ascension from lower to higher areas of the brain corresponds to perceiving objects that range from lower (simple) to higher levels of complexity Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Activity: Knowledge Check—Question (2 of 2) The progression of visual processing from lower to higher areas of the brain is called _____ and allows for the processing of _____ stimuli. a) hierarchical; complex b) hierarchical; simple c) parallel; complex d) parallel; simple Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Activity: Knowledge Check—Answer (2 of 2) The progression of visual processing from lower to higher areas of the brain is called _____ and allows for the processing of _____ stimuli. a) hierarchical; complex b) hierarchical; simple c) parallel; complex d) parallel; simple Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Sensory Coding (1 of 2) Specificity coding: – representation of a stimulus by the firing of specifically tuned neurons specialized to respond only to a specific stimulus Population coding: – representation of a stimulus by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons Sparse coding: – representation of a stimulus by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Sensory Coding (2 of 2) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Activity: Written Reflection (2 of 2) Take 2 minutes to respond to the following prompt: – Suppose you are looking at a picture of your best friend’s face. Explain how specificity coding, population coding, and sparse coding could each explain how you recognize their face. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 2.4 Localized Representation Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Localization of Function: Language Language production is impaired by damage to Broca’s area – Frontal lobe Language comprehension is impaired by damage to Wernicke’s area – Temporal lobe Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Localization of Function: Perception Primary receiving areas for the senses – Occipital lobe: vision – Parietal lobe: touch, temperature, and pain – Temporal lobe: hearing, taste, and smell Coordination of information received from all senses – Frontal lobe Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Double Dissociation When damage to one part of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present … and damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present Allows us to identify functions that are controlled by different parts of the brain Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging (1 of 2) Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) Measures neural activity by identifying highly oxygenated hemoglobin molecules – Activity recorded in voxels (3-D pixels) Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging (2 of 2) Fusiform face area (FFA) responds specifically to faces – Damage to this area causes prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces) Parahippocampal place area (PPA) responds specifically to places (indoor/outdoor scenes) Extrastriate body area (EBA) responds specifically to pictures of bodies and parts of bodies Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Evidence for Localization of Function Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 2.5 Distributed Representation Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Distributed Representation in the Brain Central principle of cognition: – Most of our experience is multidimensional. In addition to localization of function, specific functions are processed by many different areas of the brain May seem to contradict the notion of localization of function, but the concepts are complementary Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Looking at a Face Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Remembering Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Producing and Understanding Language Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Section 2.6 Neural Networks Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Neural Networks Interconnected areas of the brain that communicate with each other Connectome: structural description of the network of elements and connections forming the human brain Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Structural and Functional Connectivity Structural connectivity: – the brain’s “wiring diagram” created by axons that connect brain areas – as unique to individuals as fingerprints Functional connectivity: – how groups of neurons within the connectome function in relation to types of cognition – determined by the amount of correlated neural activity in two brain areas Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. Six Common Functions Determined by Resting- State fMRI Network Function Visual Vision; visual perception Somato-motor Movement and touch Dorsal attention Attention to visual stimuli and spatial locations Executive control Higher-level cognitive tasks involved in working memory (see Chapter 5) and directing attention during tasks Salience Attending to survival-relevant events in the environment Default mode Mind wandering, and cognitive activity related to personal life-story, social functions, and monitoring internal emotional states Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Activity: Which is the Right Answer? Suppose two areas of the brain tend to be active at the same time, but they do not appear to be connected by any nerve axons. This would demonstrate that they are: – Structurally connected – Functionally connected Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Activity: Which is the Right Answer? Suppose two areas of the brain tend to be active at the same time, but they do not appear to be connected by any nerve axons. This would demonstrate that they are: – Structurally connected – Functionally connected Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Dynamics of Cognition and Default Mode Network Dynamics of cognition: – the flow and activity within and across the brain’s functional networks change based on conditions – change within and across networks is constant Default mode network: – mode of brain function that occurs when it is at rest – one of the brain’s largest networks Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Self-Assessment What were ethe most difficult concepts for you in this chapter (in other words, what do you need to read and review again to develop your understanding of Cognitive Neuroscience?) It’s a common myth that people tend to be “right-brained” or “left- brained.” Why do you think people believe this? Do you believe this? If so, why? What evidence from this chapter suggests that functions are not highly localized in this manner? Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Summary Slide (1 of 3) Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to: 02.01: Describe the “levels-of-analysis” approach as it applies to the study of the mind in cognitive neuroscience. 02.02: Contrast Camillo Golgi’s now disproven nerve net model with Santiago Ramon y Cajal’s neuron doctrine of brain organization. 02.03: Explain how the rate of neural firing is related to the intensity of stimulation and to the magnitude of sensory experience. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Summary Slide (2 of 3) 02.04: Describe how the hierarchical processing of visual information contributes to the representation of complex visual stimuli such as specific faces or objects. 02.05: Explain how specificity coding, population coding, and sparse coding could represent sensory information in the brain. 02.06: Describe evidence for the localization of function within the brain based on findings from neuropsychology, neuronal recordings, and brain imaging studies. 02.07: Explain what is meant by the concept of distributed neural representation. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Summary Slide (3 of 3) 02.08: Distinguish between structural connectivity and functional connectivity of neural networks. 02.09: Describe the dynamic nature of activity of different functional networks, including the default mode network, during different types or stages of cognition. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.  Reminder of Chapter Quiz Assignment Don’t forget to complete the required Chapter 2 Quiz through MindTap, which is available for completion between January 20 @ 12:00am-11:59pm Central Time Zone Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research, and Everyday Experience, 5 th Edition. © 2023 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied, or duplicated or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.