Chapter 2 .pdf

Becoming a Critical Thinker by Sarah Ivory © Oxford University Press, 2021 Chapter 2 What is Critical Thinking ? © Oxford University Press, 2021 CHAPTER STRUCTURE i. Introduction ii. Critical Thinking iii. Characterizing Critical thinkers © Oxford University Press, 2021 Questions to contemplate 1. A...

Becoming a Critical Thinker by Sarah Ivory © Oxford University Press, 2021 Chapter 2 What is Critical Thinking ? © Oxford University Press, 2021 CHAPTER STRUCTURE i. Introduction ii. Critical Thinking iii. Characterizing Critical thinkers © Oxford University Press, 2021 Questions to contemplate 1. Are some people better thinkers than others? 2. How does thinking improve? 3. What distinguishes a critical thinker? © Oxford University Press, 2021 Learning goals After this chapter you will be able to: 1. Define critical thinking 2. Understand approaches to knowledge including the epistemic stages 3. Consider approaches to persuasion and an exploration of devices including ethos, pathos, and logos 4. Examine cognitive biases © Oxford University Press, 2021 CRITICAL THINKING The word 'critical' in common usage usually means finding fault In the context of critical thinking, it is much more balanced and comprehensive. It includes considering both negative and positive features‫التفكير النقدي‬ Also, strengths and weaknesses. Convincing and unconvincing elements. © Oxford University Press, 2021 What is the Critical thinking? A cognitive process of actively and carefully evaluating the reasoning and evidence behind knowledge and arguments and developing defensible knowledge and arguments ourselves. © Oxford University Press, 2021 CHARACTERIZING CRITICAL THINKERS : There are three different types of people. It is important to remember that characterizations such as this weren't intended to be perfect depictions of reality. It is likely that a real person will deploy different elements of each character. The strength of knowing the three different types of people lies in its ability to achieve a deeper understanding that more abstract theorizing can struggle with. In order to characterize critical thinkers, consider the following five different elements: approaches to knowledge, to arguments, and to persuasion, as well as cognitive processes and biases. © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to knowledge FIGURE 2.1 Approaches to ‘knowledge’ © Oxford University Press, 2021 APPROACHES TO 'KNOWLEDGE'  Those at early stages in their approach to knowledge assume that all questions have definite answers.  They just need to ask the best expert, read the most up-to-date book, or uncover the 'true' data, so that we can find the 'right' answer.  If we don't currently have the 'right' answer, it is because we haven't yet found the source of knowledge that possesses it. © Oxford University Press, 2021 APPROACHES TO 'KNOWLEDGE'  An intermediate stage, when it comes to realize that many questions and problems don't have 'right' answers or 'correct' solutions.  Even experts are making assumptions, drawing on experience, develop arguments, and presenting possible answers or solutions.  if we are at the intermediate stage, we then assume that because there are no “right” answer  all answers are simply opinions which reflect someone's values, experience, and beliefs.  all answers are equally valid, and we can't make judgements or rank the quality of different possible answers or solutions. © Oxford University Press, 2021 APPROACHES TO 'KNOWLEDGE'  The high stage in the approach to knowledge, we recognize that while questions often can't be answered with certainty, and there are many possible answers.  We can evaluate the quality of such answers: some answers will be stronger than others.  At this stage we can make evaluations of the potential answer' by assessing the quality of the argument and strength of evidence to support it.  At a high stage, we accept that 'even well-reasoned conclusions are best thought of as provisional, to be discarded if necessary, when powerful contrary facts and arguments come to light © Oxford University Press, 2021 Critical thinking happens when we reach a high stage, and accept that while there are rarely 'right' answers (especially to complex questions) © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to ‘arguments’ FIGURE 2.2 Approaches to ‘arguments’ © Oxford University Press, 2021 APPROACHES TO ARGUMENTS  The first approach can be characterized by Followers who blindly and uncritically assume all arguments are true.  They don't question the basis of what they are reading or hearing. They easily change their minds on hearing a new view, and potentially change back again with little critic thought.  Followers don't actively think about the reasoning presented to support an argument and automatically assume the evidence they are presented with is reliable. © Oxford University Press, 2021 APPROACHES TO ARGUMENTS     The second approach can be characterized by Cynics. They are the opposite of followers. Cynics assume every argument is flawed, and all evidence is false. They constantly question, but they aren't really interested in the answers to the questions because they won't be convinced by anything, irrespective of the reasoning or evidence. © Oxford University Press, 2021 APPROACHES TO ARGUMENTS  The final approach is characterized by healthy sceptics who undertake healthy questioning of potential answers or solutions.  They are interested in the reasons and evidence offered to support such arguments and make active judgments of the degree to which they find them convincing.  Healthy sceptics have doubt but remove that doubt once they have reached a level of confidence in the argument, the evidence, and/or the source. © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to persuasion  We characterize critical thinkers by considering their approach to techniques of persuasion.  But we must consider the difference between a quality argument and a persuasive argument. Who is it persuading, and why are they persuaded? © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to persuasion we must consider the difference between a quality argument and a persuasive argument. Quality argument  The quality of an argument cannot be determined by the number of people it persuades  Quality is assessed on its own merit, irrespective of the audience  Quality argument implies strong evidence Persuasive argument  An argument from a more trustworthy or credible is likely to be more persuasive  Persuasion may come from a rhetorical technique There are two elements at play here, which are related. The first is audience, and the second is rhetorical techniques. © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to persuasion  In relation to audience, we may have an audience of followers, an audience of cynies, or an audience of healthy sceptics.  What's more likely is that we have a mixed audience of people from all three categories.  Moreover, our audience may have different foundational knowledge about the topic we are discussing, or different beliefs which are relevant. © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to persuasion  Theory of persuasion divides commonly used persuasive techniques into three categories: ethos, pathos, and logos.      Ethos, from the Greek word for 'character’ is related to the trustworthiness or reputation of the source. This may include issues such as background, education, experience, or position. An argument delivered by someone who is more trustworthy or credible is likely to be more persuasive to the audience (although even here this may depend on the audience). this doesn’t replace a quality argument or strong evidence, ethos is a shortcut that can be used when making evaluations: a more credible source is likely to have a stronger argument © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to persuasion  Pathos, from the Greek word for 'suffering’  Pathos, as a rhetorical technique, relies on creating an emotional or psychologically arousing connection or appeal to our audience. This might include inciting fear, anger, sympathy  Pathos is very commonly used in politically divisive contexts (e.g. election rallies) or in attempts to convince a group of people to behave in a certain way (e.g. donate to charity).  Pathos is often a very successful rhetorical (persuasive) technique.  The problem is that it can be used to mask or entirely replace a quality argument. Critical thinkers will be immediately suspicious when they become aware of attempts to persuade them using pathos. © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to persuasion  Logos, from the Greek related to 'word', 'meaning', or 'reason’.  Logos is a rhetorical technique that relies on logical, rational argumentation and evidence to persuade. argument from reason.  Critical thinkers base arguments on logos and seek out the logos in others' arguments to assess their quality. © Oxford University Press, 2021 Approaches to persuasion FIGURE 2.3 Approaches to ‘persuasion’ © Oxford University Press, 2021 Cognitive Processes and Biases  Cognitive (of the brain) processes that result in learning, from lower to higher order. Higher order processes are necessary to develop critical thinking.  Cognitive biases are evolutionary shortcuts, useful to make immediate judgements. Critical thinkers try to actively become aware of (and where necessary avoid) biases which influence their judgements, arguments, and reasoning. FIGURE 2.4 Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy © Oxford University Press, 2021 Characterising different types of thinkers TABLE 2.1 Characterizations of thinkers © Oxford University Press, 2021