Chapter 2: Methods PDF

Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Exported for Can Aydin on Wed, 25 Oct 2023 00:23:01 GMT Chapter 2: Methods Figure 2.1 Sensors attached to a translucent model skull are used to measure explosive shock velocity. Data recorded by these sensors are used to study traumatic brain injuries. [1] 2...

Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Exported for Can Aydin on Wed, 25 Oct 2023 00:23:01 GMT Chapter 2: Methods Figure 2.1 Sensors attached to a translucent model skull are used to measure explosive shock velocity. Data recorded by these sensors are used to study traumatic brain injuries. [1] 2.0 Learning Objectives L.O. 2.1 Describe how the study of psychology moved from rationalism to its presentday focus on experience and scientific theories. L.O. 2.2 Explain how psychology uses the scientific method to investigate behavior and mental processes. L.O. 2.3 Understand the usefulness of descriptive research in psychology, and how natural observation, participant observation, case studies, and surveys can both https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 1 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 contribute to our knowledge and produce flawed results. L.O. 2.4 Describe how research with human participants is conducted ethically through the application of specific ethical principles. L.O. 2.5 Understand the usefulness of correlational research in psychology, and what positive, negative, and zero correlations can and cannot tell us about a dataset. L.O. 2.6 Understand the usefulness of experimental research in psychology, including how experiments help us understand causality, and the importance of sample selection, control groups, and internal/external validity. L.O. 2.7 Explain what measures of central tendency and variability (“spread”) tell us about data, and how psychologists draw conclusions using inferential statistics. 2.1 Introduction: How Do We Know? “Psychology has a long past but a short history.” These are famous words that Hermann Ebbinghaus used to begin his influential textbook on psychology (Ebbinghaus, 1908). But what does this mean? Ebbinghaus’s quote signified a revolution in psychology as a science. Asking questions about the mind was nothing new; philosophers had been asking questions about the mind, thought, and reasoning for literally thousands of years. However, how they answered questions about how the mind worked relied upon a process of rationalism ; the view that reason and logical argument, but not experience, is most important for how we acquire knowledge. Aristotle (fourth century BCE) used rationalism to reason that human thoughts, perceptions, and emotions were products of the heart rather than the brain. Aristotle recognized the heart as a central part of our being, both literally and figuratively. Our heart is positioned in the center of our bodies, is connected by blood to all other organs of our bodies (specifically our senses), and the beating of our heart is affected by our emotional state. Therefore, the heart must be the seat of our senses and emotion (Gross, 1995). The function of other organs, like the brain, were not to be forgotten, but rather were reasoned to be among a group of secondary organs (including the lungs) that existed to cool the blood and, in doing so, help maintain a tempered and rational state of mind (Figure 2.2). Much has changed since Aristotle’s time, but even still we acknowledge this history when we describe people as kindhearted, openhearted, fainthearted, or heartless. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 2 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Figure 2.2 Aristotle reasoned that the heart was the origin of all emotion. The brain, not to be forgotten, served to cool the blood. Long Text Description As a discipline, psychology and our understanding of behavior were wrapped up in rationalism and philosophical reasoning until the middle of the nineteenth century (Hatfield, 2009). Until this time, psychologists had few methods, other than logic and reasoning, to substantiate their claims. It was widely believed that it was not even possible to conduct experiments on the mind. But the flaw in rationalism is clear: What we “think” is true about behavior is often different from how we actually behave. We can even demonstrate this to you right now. Consider a simple question about how you would react to the following situation: Would you notice if a person you are talking to is replaced by another person? Most of us would like to think we would. However, 53% of participants in one study and 67% of participants in a second study failed to notice that the person changed midway through their conversation (Simons & Levin, 1998). We don’t realize just how little attention we pay to the identity of a person. Video 2.1 discusses the "door" study and the “obvious” changes to which many people are https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 3 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 completely oblivious in the moment. Video Please visit the textbook on a web or mobile device to view video content. Question 2.1 Review Do you think you would have noticed if a person you are talking to is replaced by another person? (There is no right or wrong answer) Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Yes b No Show Submitted Answer Your answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer The differences between how we think we might act and how we behave highlight the limitations of rationalism to explain behavior. Our reasoning about behavior can be contradicted when put to the test. When Ebbinghaus referred to the “short history” of psychology, he meant that it had moved beyond rationalism to using experimental methods (or simply experiments) to collect data , test theories, and allowing experience and observation to be the primary sources of knowledge. Using experimental methods, researchers gather facts and observations of phenomena to form scientific theories : rational explanations to describe and predict future behavior. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 4 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 2.2 Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method Psychology uses experience-driven approaches to understand behavior. The scientific method is a common approach in which researchers methodologically answer questions. The steps of the scientific method are as follows (Figure 2.3): 1. Identify the problem 2. Gather information 3. Generate a hypothesis 4. Design and conduct experiments 5. Analyze data and formulate conclusions 6. Restart the process https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 5 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Identifythe Problem Gather Information Restartthe Hypothesis Process DesignandConduct Experiments DataAnalysis andConclusions Figure 2.3 Steps of the Scientific Method Long Text Description Let’s use an example of a teaching problem to see how the scientific method can be applied. Identify the problem: The first step in the process is to identify the problem of interest, which may be based on observation, previous research, established theory, or intuition. Consider a professor, who has a question: How do I get students to come to class prepared, having already completed their pre-class activities? The professor thinks students will do more preparation for a class if she gives them the right motivation for doing so. Can she find support for her ideas? To do so, she would have to do an experiment. Gather information: Once the topic of interest is identified, it is important to review the scientific literature and examine existing theories of behavior. A"er doing a database https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 6 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 search of scientific journal articles, the professor finds a number of related articles. Research indicates that most students (about 70–80%) do not prepare before class for a variety of reasons, including that many students do not see the link between doing the pre-class readings, their learning, and the e#ect it has on their course grades (Heiner et al., 2014). The implication is that if reading is made a part of student assessments, students will be more likely to complete the assigned readings. Develop a hypothesis: A"er evaluating available information about the area of investigation, researchers develop a hypothesis, or an educated prediction, about the outcome of the experiment. Based on the professor's research, she hypothesizes that students who have completed a graded assessment will be more likely to prepare for class than students who did not complete a graded assessment. Design and conduct an experiment: The next step is to develop an experiment to test the hypothesis and collect data. The professor has to compare how assigning grades will a#ect the likelihood that the reading will be completed, so she needs to know how much reading students typically complete and how adding an assessment will a#ect the chances that students will complete more of the readings. To test her hypothesis, she gives one section of a class a pre-class quiz to earn course credit for having come to class. A second section will complete the same quiz before class without course credit for completion. The key is that there are two di#erent groups under study, and the only di#erence between groups is that one section gets credit and the other does not. To measure how likely students are to complete their reading, the professor could assess how well each group performed on the test, giving her an indirect measure that should be correlated with studying. Analyze the data and draw conclusions: This step involves determining whether the findings support the experimenter’s predictions. The professor hypothesized that giving incentive (course credit) would make students more likely to do the pre-class readings and come to class better prepared than other students who are not given incentives. Once the experiment is complete, the professor needs to determine whether the data support that hypothesis. Are those students given course credit more likely to report having completed the assigned reading? Do these same students also perform better on quizzes? These pieces of evidence help to form opinions and provide some insight into the problem the professor started with. If the data analysis indicates that students who completed a graded assessment are more prepared for class, the professor could conclude that her hypothesis was supported by the evidence collected. However, she must be clear that this does not mean that she has definitively “proven” her hypothesis https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 7 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 to be “true” in any absolute sense. Rather, she has made conclusions based on the data available. The professor must always leave open the possibility that new evidence may come along to refute her hypothesis. Restart the process: The process starts over again at the point where the researcher reconsiders the original question/problem and may choose to either replicate (or redo) the same experiment, conduct a similar experiment with some modifications ( replication with extension), or move on to an entirely new research topic. The professor could continue to investigate how to best motivate students to come to class prepared by replicating the results in another class or a di#erent context. She could also extend the research to other ways that she can motivate student behavior, which can become part of a programmatic research study, which is simply a continued area of inquiry. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 8 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.2 Review What is the correct order of the scientific method? Drag and drop options into correct order and submit. For keyboard navigation... SHOW MORE Identify the problem Gather information Hypothesis Design and conduct experiments Data analysis and conclusions Restart the process Your answer Explanation See the section on Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method. Before we conduct a study, we need to narrow down an area in which we could answer a specific question or solve a particular problem. Then, we need to do research on that topic to find out what research has already been conducted and what holes there are in the literature. Once we have identified an area without research, we can specify a testable statement about how we think the results will turn out before we conduct the experiment (but based on what studies others have done). Next, we select a research design (observational or experimental) based on our research question and carry out the experiment. Once we have collected the data, then we can use statistical analysis to compare the means (usually) across conditions or groups to see whether there was a treatment e!ect. We're never really done with experiments, and no one experiment answers all possible questions or controls for all confounds, so we keep doing additional experiments to build evidence. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Check My Answer Page 9 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.3 Review What is the best definition of a hypothesis? Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a A fact b An explanation of an experiment c The reason for an observation d A conclusion about a problem e The predicted outcome of an experiment or research study Your answer Explanation See the section on Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method. A hypothesis is an educated prediction about the potential outcome of a study. We make a hypothesis before we conduct an experiment about what will happen, which means that a hypothesis can't serve as an explanation for anything that has already happened. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer To review the scientific method, review the interactive slides below: https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 10 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 iFrame Please visit the textbook on a web or mobile device to view iframe content. Access Interactive Timeline 2.1 in a new browser tab. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 11 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.4 Review Which of the following is not a part of the scientific method? Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Identify the problem b Theory c Hypothesis d Data analysis and conclusion Your answer Explanation See the section on Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method. In exploratory studies, we don't necessarily have an overarching theory to explain the results of many individual studies. However, we can still identify a problem, formulate a hypothesis, and analyze the data in a new area. Only a"er conducting many studies and several cycles through the scientific method will we be able to organize the findings into a formal theory. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Check My Answer Page 12 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.5 Review Using the scientific method, in what stage does a scientist “test” their hypothesis? Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Identify the problem b Hypothesis c Design and conduct experiments d Data analysis and conclusions Your answer Explanation See the section on Psychology as a Science: The Scientific Method. Conducting the experiment - which involves designing and running the experiment - is how we test our hypothesis. Here, we analyze the data and make a decision about how our data compare to our expectation, and this happens a"er we test our hypothesis. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer 2.3 Descriptive Methods Descriptive methods are any means to capture, report, record, or otherwise describe a group. Descriptive research is usually interested in identifying “what is” without necessarily understanding “why it is.” There are four popular methods to describe groups: naturalistic observation, participant observation, case studies, and surveys. 2.3.1 Naturalistic Observation Observational research (or field research) is a type of non-experimental research of behavior. Naturalistic observation is best described as observation of behavior as it happens in a natural environment, without an attempt to manipulate or control the conditions of the observation. Compared with more controlled observations, it is similar to the difference between observing the behavior of animals in a zoo compared to animals in their natural https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 13 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 habitat. The lack of manipulation is a key distinction between other approaches in natural settings, like field experiments , in which a researcher manipulates and controls the conditions of the behavior under observation. Observations can be captured either qualitatively (by collecting opinions, notes, or general observations of behavior) or quantitatively (any attempt to measure or count specific behaviors). The benefit of naturalistic observation is that it can often help us generate new ideas about an observed phenomenon. One of the most important things researchers do when designing a study (regardless of whether it is descriptive, correlational, or experimental) is create an operational definition . An operational definition is how a researcher decides to measure a variable. A variable is something that varies in the context of a research study. In the video below demonstrating a naturalistic observation, the observer is recording the behavior of drivers at an intersection. She is attempting to observe the frequency (how often) people stop legally at the stop sign versus not stopping legally. Read the questions below, then review the video. How will you operationally define a "legal stop"? Many places define it as coming to a complete stop before the white line painted on the street (before the stop sign itself). Are there other categories of "stops" that might exist? For example, we might think of "legal stops" "rolling stops" (drivers who brake but do not fully stop at the sign), and "no stop"—drivers who ignore the stop sign entirely. These are important questions to consider when we decide how to operationally define "stopping". Can you think of factors that might alter how likely a person is to stop at the stop sign? Perhaps a person's age or gender a#ects their likelihood of stopping, or perhaps the type of car they are driving does. Other factors might include how visible the stop sign is or if drivers are expecting a stop sign in the area. Can you create a hypothesis to predict when people might be more likely to stop at a stop sign? https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 14 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Video Please visit the textbook on a web or mobile device to view video content. Naturalistic observation allows us to better understand behavior exactly as it happens in the real world. This kind of description of behavior is said to be ecologically valid because the observations are a product of behaviors that were uninfluenced by the researcher. When observing others, it is important to stay as unobtrusive as possible so people don’t realize they are being watched. In many cases, people and other animals reactively change their behavior once they become aware they are being observed. This change in behavior as a result of being observed is known as reactivity , and is also sometimes called the Hawthorne effect (Chiesa & Hobbs, 2008). The video below discusses the Hawthorne Effect in more detail. Video Please visit the textbook on a web or mobile device to view video content. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 15 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.6 Review What does the word “Hawthorne” refer to? Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a A factory called Hawthorne Works Electric Company b A researcher with the name Hawthorne c An employee at a factory with the name Hawthorne d None of the above Your answer Explanation See the video on the Hawthorne e!ect around 0:33. The Hawthorne factory is the place where they conducted several years' worth of experiments to increase employee productivity. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer Steeping some tea... https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 16 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.8 Review Modern studies have found that the change in the working environment was not the important factor on productivity. Rather, it was simply that the employees were being observed. Which step in the scientific method does this address? Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Gathering information b Hypothesis c Conducting experiments d Data analysis Your answer Explanation See the video on the Hawthorne e!ect around 1:33. We factor in any potential confounds when we analyze our data to help us interpret or discount any treatment e!ects. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer In some instances, naturalistic observation might also be the only way to observe behavior, like in the case of natural disasters or any other condition that would be deemed unethical to conduct in a controlled setting (e.g., inciting a riot). 2.3.1.1 Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation While naturalistic observation is a powerful approach to collecting insight into behavior, there are a few disadvantages. When conducting naturalistic observation, researchers lack control over the environment and the many different factors that can affect behavior. Therefore, we may not always be sure of what is influencing behavior. With regard to observing people at a stop sign, we are not aware of all the circumstances that may lead a person to stop (or not). For example, perhaps the person who did not stop was experiencing a medical emergency, and in nearly all other situations would have stopped. This lack of https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 17 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 control over the environment may weaken the conclusions we can draw. It may also make it difficult for another researcher to repeat the exact same observations. Researchers’ perspectives and bias may also influence the interpretation of behaviors they find relevant. In fact, two observers might take away different observations from the same event (Figure 2.4). As such, it is important to have agreed-upon observational definitions, to train researchers how to use these definitions in the course of their observations, and to compare their results with other raters to see if they are also making similar observations. It is important for researchers to share results to ensure the validity of the data they collect and ensure interrater reliability . For example, one rater might believe that a driver fully stopped, while another might consider it a rolling stop. Four No, three Figure 2.4 Two people, looking at the same thing, may observe the situation from di#erent perspectives. When conducting naturalistic observation, the researcher should be as unobtrusive as possible to avoid influencing the findings. However, in some situations, the only way to gain access to an environment or group is by participation. 2.3.2 Participant Observation Participant observation is a research method in which a researcher becomes part of the group under investigation. Sometimes this is the only way to gain access to a group. As you https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 18 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 will see in Chapter 13: Social Psychology, to understand doomsday cults, scientists had to pose as new cult members. Historically, this form of research has been associated with researchers temporarily living in small communities. Being part of the group can provide a more enriching experience and afford greater access to the daily life and activities of group members. However, there are some limitations to this method. Having the observer immersed in the experience can increase reactivity, as their mere presence may inherently change behavior (remember the Hawthorne effect?). Participant observation can also reduce reactivity however, if the researcher is accepted as a natural part of the environment - if the researcher is thought of as "just another member of the cult," their presence is less likely to cause reactivity than if they are known to be an outside observer. As the observer spends time and integrates with group however, they could become biased and “see” only those things that fit the initial hypothesis. At times, though, participant observation does offer unique clues about th e group and its cultures. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, David Rosenhan, a professor at Stanford University, was highly skeptical of the diagnostic abilities of clinicians and questioned the accuracy of diagnostic techniques. At the heart of his doubt was whether clinicians could reliably distinguish the sane from the insane; this led to a three-year investigation unlike any other (Rosenhan, 1973). Eight healthy researchers (five men and three women, including Rosenhan himself) tested the notion that psychiatrists were incapable of making accurate distinctions between sanity and insanity. The participants tested 12 hospitals in five different states that represented a wide range of psychiatric care facilities. At the intake interview, all participants (using false identities) reported hearing voices, saying words such as “empty,” “hollow,” and “thud.” The words themselves have little meaning or intention associated with them and are not inherently dangerous or commonly spoken by those with schizophrenia. But those three simple words were all it took to admit all of the researchers to the psychiatric care facilities. Once inside, the participants (or pseudopatients) behaved “normally” and made no further indication of hearing voices in their heads. The participants became a part of the psychiatric ward, taking notes about their experiences and perceptions of clinician attitudes from the perspective of a patient. Eleven of the 12 hospitalized researchers were given a diagnosis of schizophrenia, while the remaining pseudopatient was diagnosed with manic-depressive https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 19 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 psychosis. While clinicians could not see that these pseudopatients were sane, patients in the hospital routinely suspected that the researchers were “faking it.” Other patients described note-taking as a sign of “checking up on the hospital,” whereas psychologists, nurses, and other staff members saw note-taking as an aspect of their supposed illness. Rosenhan suggested that physicians operate with a strong bias toward what statisticians call a “false positive”—in this case, the inclination to call a healthy person sick. Participant observation was used to demonstrate that clinicians, at the time, could not reliably tell the difference between people who are sane and those who are insane. Fortunately, our means of clinical assessment have developed quite a bit since this study to establish more checks and balances to minimize patient misdiagnosis. The following video describes the Rosenhan study. Video Please visit the textbook on a web or mobile device to view video content. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 20 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.9 Review From the David Rosenhan video, under what diagnosis were his pseudopatients discharged from the hospital? Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a As cured of paranoid schizophrenia b Schizophrenia in remission c As unlikely to be experiencing paranoid schizophrenia d Manic-depressive psychosis Your answer Explanation See the video about the Rosenhan study at 3:36. The psychologists who had no diagnosis otherwise received diagnoses that their schizophrenia was in remission. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer As you can see, participant observation can be valuable research because the researcher is privy to new perspectives and insights that would not be obtainable from naturalistic observation. However, there are some important drawbacks that lead critics of participant observation to question the method’s validity. Clearly, a researcher’s views and bias can affect the interpretation of events. In some cases, a researcher can become so involved and sympathetic to the group that it interferes with research objectivity. Furthermore, because the observer is a participant in the ongoing activities, the researcher can, knowingly or not, influence participants’ behavior, thereby creating the problem of reactivity and affecting the behavior being observed. Another potential disadvantage of participant observation is a low degree of reliability (the consistency or repeatability of research findings). The observations made are highly dependent on the unique conditions of participation, and what may be true for one person’s experience may not be readily shared by others. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 21 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 2.3.3 Case Studies A case study is an in-depth analysis of a unique circumstance or individual. For instance, what happens when a child is raised without human contact? How does an accident that destroys a part of the brain affect our personality? Fortunately, these events rarely occur. But when they do happen, they present an incredible learning opportunity. Case studies have been made popular in medicine, whereby clinicians observe an unusual patient and attempt to investigate the patient's condition in more detail to provide a broader understanding of a phenomenon. In clinical neuroscience, Henry Molaison—usually referred to as “H.M.” in the scientific literature—is an excellent example of how a case study can be used to gain insight into behavior (Squire, 2009). As a young boy, Henry started to experience mild seizures after falling off his bike and hitting his head (bicycle helmets were rarely used in the 1930s). While manageable at first, his seizures became progressively worse as he aged and could not be treated by conventional means. By the time Henry reached his late 20s, he could no longer live a normal life because of the frequency and severity of his seizure attacks (Corkin, 1984). On the advice of his neurosurgeon, his last resort was bilateral ablation (surgical damage) to his ventral medial temporal lobes (which includes the hippocampus and the entorhinal cortex ), as this brain tissue was believed to be the point of origin of Henry’s seizures (Figure 2.5). https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 22 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 H.M.'sbrain Normalbrain Hippocampus Hippocampusremoved Figure 2.5 The Brain That Changed Everything. A"er surgical removal of both hippocampi to treat uncontrollable epileptic seizures, Henry Molaison was unable to form new memories. The surgery did effectively treat Henry’s seizures; however, there was an unforeseen, disturbing side effect. It seemed that he could no longer form new memories. In the decades that followed, H.M. would become the most studied person in the history of psychology (Squire, 2009). While the details of his case are unique, this was an opportunity for researchers to explore the role of the hippocampus in the formation of memory (Penfield & Milner, 1958), which ultimately led to the identification of different types of memories, like episodic, semantic, and procedural memories (Cohen & Squire, 1980; see Chapter 8: Memory for more details). The challenge of case studies is to generalize findings from a unique case. Because a case study is focused on only one person, group, or event, we can never be sure the conclusions drawn from this particular case can be broadly generalized to other cases. For example, one person’s experience, otherwise known as an anecdote, likely cannot be easily or fairly applied to a broader population of people. Even in Henry’s case, an autopsy revealed damage to his frontal lobes that may also have contributed to his poor memory. In summary, naturalistic observation, participant observation, and case studies allow researchers to study small groups (or even individuals) to produce rich descriptive data of behavior. Although a powerful perspective, we are likely not capturing a representation of an entire population of people. As such, researchers often turn to surveys to describe larger https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 23 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 patterns of behavior. 2.3.4 Surveys Surveys are an efficient way to quickly collect information and gather an understanding of the current state of people’s opinions or attitudes. Do you want to predict the outcomes of the election? Are consumers planning to spend more this Christmas? Are educational leaders focused on providing degree experiences that lead to good jobs? Finding the answer is simple: Go out and ask people. Surveys offer a quick way of collecting lots of information about the current state of people’s opinions, perspectives, and experiences and can be administered in a variety of ways, including online surveys, mailed questionnaires, person-to-person interviews, and phone interviews. For example, end-of-term course evaluations are a popular way to capture your perceptions of a course. What makes for a good course? Did you learn a lot? Was your instructor effective? Were you fairly assessed? All of these questions create a picture of your experiences within the course. It may be impossible, or simply too time consuming, to survey every single member of a group (called a population ), but surveys can be administered to a smaller subset of the population, called a sample . It is vital that the sample selected is representative of the broader population you wish to study. For example, if course evaluations are only administered to the top students in a class, we might expect those students to provide more favorable reviews (on average) than if we also polled students who were struggling with the course. Sampling error or bias is any pooled selection of students that differs from the entire population in meaningful ways. For example, this might include a sample of only females, if we have reason to believe that female-identified students outperform maleidentified students in the subject. When sampling errors occur, results and conclusions of the experiment cannot be applied back to the entire population. In this case, the instructor may not be as effective as the survey reports. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 24 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Surveys are prone to potential disadvantages that must be carefully considered. The questions asked in these surveys must be carefully worded to avoid biasing the outcome in either a positive or negative way (Borgers & Sikke 2004). These are known as wording effects . For instance, how might you respond to the following two questions? Question 2.10 Review Should your college allow speeches on campus that might incite violence? (There are no right or wrong answers.) Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Yes b No Show Submitted Answer Your answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer Question 2.11 Review Should your college forbid speeches on campus that might incite violence? (There are no right or wrong answers.) Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Yes b No Show Submitted Answer Your answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer Notice in the statements above that only one word is different. But incorporating the words forbid or allow can have a powerful influence on our opinion. In response to the first question, the majority of respondent tend to say “Yes,” but when presented with the second phrasing (forbid), even more students respond “No.” Both responses are consistent with the https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 25 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 overall thematic representation of the question, but people react more strongly to the word forbid and thereby increase the tendency to respond one way (Adams, 1956). Consider another classic example of how judgment/opinion depends on the specifics of the question. In 1986, a British Gallup poll asked Britons whether their country’s nuclear weapons made them feel safe (Lelyveld, 1986). In this case, 40% of those surveyed agreed. Another poll modified the question to use the word safer, and 50% of respondents agreed. In context, that slight change in wording (one letter, to be exact) shifted about five-and-ahalf million people’s votes. These results indicate how important the smallest detail of wording can be to a question. Surveys should also consider response bias from the participants themselves: the tendency for people to answer the question the way they feel they are expected to answer or in systematic ways that are otherwise inaccurate. In the simplest instance, the validity of surveys can be influenced by the acquiescent response bias (otherwise called “yea- saying”). Acquiescence refers to a tendency for participants to indiscriminately “agree” with most if not all items on a survey regardless of their actual opinion (Krosnick, 1991). The socially desirable bias is another systematic approach to answering questions (van de Mortel, 2008). In this case, the bias is not indiscriminate, but participants respond in specific ways that they believe would be seen as acceptable by others. For example, many people would be hesitant to admit to illegal or immoral behavior, especially if the survey results are not kept confidential. Finally, it seems that we all have biased perceptions of our own behavior. For instance, consider the following: https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 26 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.12 No Correct Answer Review Are you a better-than-average driver? For this question, click on a % score between 0% and 100%, where 100% means you think you're better than all drivers out there, 50% means you're better than half the drivers out there, and 0% means you're better than none of the drivers out there. (There are no right or wrong answers.) Image: A horizontal bar marked from 0 percent to 100 percent in increments of 10.  Correct! Targets placed: 1/1 Undo Delete selected Remove All You can place up to 1 targets Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Check My Answer Page 27 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Figure 2.6 Are you a better-than-average driver? Most of us think we are. [7] Did you rate yourself better than average? Probably at around 70%, right? If this describes you, you wouldn’t be alone; in fact, 50% of people think that they are better than 70% of the driving population. This, of course, can’t be true, as only 30% of people can be better than 70% of the population (Roy & Liersch, 2013). The tendency to describe our own behavior is called the better-than-average effect, or illusory superiority (Hoorens, 1993). The effect is not limited to our driving abilities, but is generalizable across a range of personal attributes. In a classic 1977 study, 94% of professors rated themselves as above average relative to their peers (Cross, 1977). As famously quoted by the author, Patricia Cross (1977), “When more than 90 percent of faculty members rate themselves as above-average teachers, and two-thirds rate themselves among the top quarter, the outlook for improvement in teaching seems less than promising” (p. 1). Knowing all this, do you think you are susceptible to response bias? https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 28 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.13 No Correct Answer Review Do you think you are less susceptible to response bias? For this question, please give yourself a score between 0% and 100%, where 0% means everyone is better than you (i.e., you are more susceptible to the illusory superiority e!ect), 50% means you are better than half the other people, and 100% means you are better than everyone else (i.e., you are less susceptible to the illusory superiority e!ect). (There are no right or wrong answers.) Image: A horizontal bar marked from 0 percent to 100 percent in increments of 10.  Correct! Targets placed: 1/1 Undo Delete selected Remove All You can place up to 1 targets Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Check My Answer Page 29 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 (Answer: The answer to this can be funny. Despite being exposed to the response bias effect, people will, on average, continue to identify their own behavior as better than average. This again affirms the response bias effect.) Generally speaking, the response or return rate from surveys can vary dramatically depending on the size of the survey and the motivation of the participants. On average, most researchers receive responses from 30–50% of all people surveyed (Baruch & Holtom 2008). We also must consider that some participants who complete surveys may not always carefully consider their responses or provide accurate information, as shown in the cartoon below. Figure 2.7 Some participants may not answer surveys accurately. Long Text Description However, even with these deficiencies, surveys can be tremendously powerful. In a classic example, Alfred Kinsey (1894–1956) revolutionized our understanding of people’s sexual attitudes and behaviors by collecting surveys from more than 18,000 people. Kinsey compiled the surveys into two publications known as the Kinsey reports: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953). These publications provided a comprehensive and unprecedented insight into people's sexual attitudes, preferences, and orientation. Both publications highlighted the differences between social attitudes of sexuality and actual sexual practice. Both books quickly became best sellers, and Kinsey’s contributions helped spark a massive cultural and social upheaval: the sexual revolution of the 1960s. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 30 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 However, statisticians who evaluated Kinsey’s methods felt that his findings may have been subject to a key survey-related bias: who was willing to participate in this survey, and were those who did representative of the rest of the population? Among the conservative sexual attitudes of the 1950s, many Americans were reluctant to discuss their sex lives publicly. The assumption was that people that do volunteer to be interviewed about taboo subjects like sex may not be representative of the rest of the population. This is known as volunteer bias ; that is, the small few who were willing and ready to talk about their sex lives were likely overrepresented in the survey (Strassberg & Lowe, 1995). Aspects of the survey also required adult respondents to think back over several years, even decades, about early sexual experiences. However, despite the caution of surveys presented here, the power of surveys to inform and shape our perspectives is clear. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 31 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.14 Review Match the following description with the type of descriptive method being used. Drag and drop options on the right-hand side and submit. For keyboard navigation... SHOW MORE A researcher polled students to ask where they were spending spring break. Naturalistic Observation To better understand the e!ectiveness of a professor‚ the department chair sat in on a class and asked students about Participant Observation their experiences with the teacher. A biologist traveled to the Tanzanian Forest to study the social and family Survey interactions of the wild chimpanzee. Explanation See the sections about naturalistic observation, surveys, and participant observation. In survey research, participants only have to answer questions or make ratings and aren't observed for longer periods of time. In naturalistic observation, experimenters observe participants and record their behavior when the participants are in their typical or natural environment. In participant observation research, the experimenter tries to blend in with their participants and collect detailed information about participant behavior. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Check My Answer Page 32 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.15 Review When is a case study the most useful? Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a When studying behavior change b When research requires a substantial sample to be worthwhile or e!ective c When a participant has a rare condition d When you are studying yourself Your answer Explanation See the section on case studies. We conduct a case study when we're investigating a rare or unique phenomenon or condition and we need in-depth information on the person involved. There aren't other people like HM who have had their hippocampal lobes removed and the resulting memory deficits. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Check My Answer Page 33 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.16 Review The term “Hawthorne e!ect” refers to the e!ect the presence of an observer can have on the behavior on the subjects or a temporary change in behavior due to the novelty of the situation. Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a True b False Your answer Explanation Participants only react to new people who might be observing their behavior, and the e!ects go away a"er they get used to the presence of this new person; participants' behavior will return to its typical pattern. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer Question 2.17 Review Fill in the Blanks Type your answers in all of the blanks and submit - current answer: <p id="">Observation of behavior in real world settings is best described as&nbsp;&lt;blank1&gt; Observation of behavior in real world settings is best described as naturalistic observation. You are correct Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Check My Answer Page 34 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.18 Review The primary strength of survey research is the ability to determine cause-e!ect explanations. Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a True b False Your answer Explanation The primary strength of a true experiment in which an independent variable is manipulated (has at least two conditions) is that we can determine cause-and-e!ect explanations. Surveys give us correlations at best. We have to take that a step further with an experiment to have a directional explanation. Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer 2.4 Research Ethics for Human Participants Now that we have established the process of how psychology research is designed and carried out, we must consider the set of principles that have been established for psychologists to follow when they carry out a research study. These standards of behavior are called research ethics . When most people think about the meaning of ethics, they think about how one person should treat another—kind of like the golden rule (“Treat others in the same way you would want to be treated”). In research, ethics is a set of general principles that outline how people should be educated, treated, and respected when participating in any study. Unfortunately, there are examples in history (such as the Tuskegee syphilis study discussed below) that failed to treat participants in ethical ways and will be remembered as a driving force in the creation of formal ethical processes in research. 2.4.1 The Tuskegee Syphilis Study Review the following video on the Tuskegee syphilis study (1932–1972). The mistreatment of participants in this study was a critical reflection point in developing a consensus of guidelines for the treatment of all research participants in the United States. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 35 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 The Tuskegee syphilis study was intended to follow the natural progression of syphilis, a contagious disease spread primarily through sexual Video Please visit the textbook on a web or mobile device to view video content. contact. Over 600 African-American men, including 400 known to have already acquired syphilis, were recruited to participate in the study with the promise of free meals, medical treatment for “bad blood” (a generic term for a variety of ailments), and burial insurance (Reverby & Foster, 2010). Unfortunately, the researchers’ only goal was to follow the time course of the disease—they had no intention of treating participants for their “bad blood.” Over the 40-year span of the study, researchers misled participants about the actual purpose of the study and denied them medical treatment, despite numerous medical advances in the treatment of syphilis during this time. This negligence ultimately led to the preventable deaths of hundreds of participants and needlessly contributing to the spread of syphilis. In 1972, the New York Times released a story about the Tuskegee syphilis study, and the public reacted in shock. Shortly thereafter, the government moved to establish federal ethical principles and guidelines outlining how all researchers should conduct research studies (Heller, 1972). 2.4.2 General Ethical Principles of Psychologists The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed a series of five ethical principles to help psychologists develop their research practice, which are discussed in detail below (American Psychological Association, 2002). 2.4.2.1 Principle A: Beneficence and Non-maleficence This principle states that research should strive to do good (beneficence ) and avoid creating experiments that can intentionally harm (maleficence ) participants. Psychologists must carefully weigh the benefits of the research against the costs that https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 36 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 participants may experience and put in place safeguards to protect the mental and physical well-being of research participants. 2.4.2.2 Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility When people agree to participate in experiments, they are entrusting themselves to the researcher. In turn, the principle of fidelity and responsibility inspires researchers to maintain that trust. The word fidelity is often associated with the meaning “loyal” or “faithful.” In the context of research, this means that researchers should be honest and reliable with participants, data, and when they report their findings. For example, if a study is known to include potential risks of participation, like making participants feel embarrassed or upset, the psychologist should let people know ahead of time so they are prepared for what to expect and can make an informed decision whether to participate or not. Psychologists also have a responsibility to hold themselves and their colleagues to high standards of conduct and take action if needed. Psychologists have a responsibility to protect the well-being of participants by intervening if they see any situation that may harm participants. 2.4.2.3 Principle C: Integrity The principle of integrity states that psychologists should engage in accurate, honest, and non-biased practices in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology. For example, psychologists should always strive to communicate results to colleagues and the public accurately, without making up data (fabrication) or manipulating research data (falsification). 2.4.2.4 Principle D: Justice The concept of justice strives to establish “equality” in the research process. Specifically, those people who participate in the research process should also be the same people who stand to benefit from the research outcomes. Justice is explicitly stated because researchers have historically included or excluded populations from participation in research. For example, women and children have historically been treated as vulnerable populations and unreasonably excluded from participation in clinical research. As a result, important research on the effects of medical treatments has often been collected from male-only https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 37 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 populations and then generalized to women and children (Dresser, 1992). This is problematic, because there are fundamental differences between the sexes and people of different ages that may affect the efficacy and safety of treatments. For reasons like this, researchers should not include or exclude any group from participation for reasons that are unrelated to the study. There are sometimes practical reasons to limit participation in a research activity. For instance, a study on child development might only include children within a small range of ages because it captures how children perceive, react, or behave at that particular time. In this case, age is an inclusion criterion —a participant attribute that is essential to answer the research question. Conversely, exclusion criteria are any attributes that would prevent participation because they cannot address the research question. For example, adults would not be included as participants in a child development study because they are not a part of the age range that is being studied. The combination of inclusion and exclusion criteria form a study's eligibility criteria , a set of characteristics shared by all participants that ensure that those participating will meaningfully help to address the research question. 2.4.2.5 Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity This principle states that each person is valued in the research process and that researchers should take measures to respect and protect participants' rights, privacy, and welfare. In the practice of research, this means that researchers should communicate openly and honestly about the details of the study before asking for participants' consent to participate in the research process. This also includes a requirement for respect of privacy and confidentiality of all participants. It is important to ensure that data are kept private and even made anonymous to ensure that identifying information cannot be traced back to an individual. Respect for people's dignity also includes understanding the vulnerabilities of participant populations (e.g., socioeconomic status, religion, race, disability) and taking measures to ensure that participants are not coerced into participating in an experiment that they otherwise might not feel comfortable doing. For example, compensating research participants with money or course credit is a common practice in psychology research, but the amount of compensation should be reasonable and not an excessive amount that would motivate people to participate in activities they would not otherwise feel comfortable with (Grant & Sugarman, 2004). https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 38 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Question 2.19 Review Match each ethical principle with the appropriate corresponding statement. Drag and drop options on the right-hand side and submit. For keyboard navigation... SHOW MORE Protection of the research Beneficence and Nonmaleficence participant is more important than the pursuit of new knowledge A researcher's obligation to say Fidelity and Responsibility something when they believe that participants are not being treated fairly A researcher makes every e!ort Integrity to promote accuracy and honesty when reporting research results Researchers should not exclude Justice any group from participation for reasons that are unrelated to the study The capacity and rights of all Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity individuals to make their own decisions Your answer Hint Think about how the ethical principles can influence participant and experimenter decisions. https://app.tophat.com/e/061104/assigned/item/1109070::9ee18579-cd9f-42e0-884f-cfd5a672efde Page 39 of 109 Chapter 2: Methods 24.10.2023, 20:23 Show Submitted Answer Show Correct Answer Check My Answer Question 2.20 Review Dr. Abideen is investigating a new technique help students remember information more e!iciently for exams. Because she works at a women’s college, she decides to only include participants identifying as female in her sample. Dr. Abideen’s research plan may violate which of the following ethical principles? Select an answer and submit. For keyboard navigation, use the up/down arrow keys to select an answer. a Beneficence and Nonmaleficence b Fidelity and Responsibility