CHAPTER 2_ FAMOUS PHILOSOPHERS .pdf

MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human CHAPTER 2: FAMOUS PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR IDEAS Objectives: a. Analyze the philosophical ideas in of different philosophers. b. Value the contributions of the f...

MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human CHAPTER 2: FAMOUS PHILOSOPHERS AND THEIR IDEAS Objectives: a. Analyze the philosophical ideas in of different philosophers. b. Value the contributions of the famous philosophers to the life of human persons. c. Evaluate the philosophical principles introduced by the philosophers from different eras and philosophical movement d. TIME TO LEARN! Some Famous Philosophers 1. Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) Thomas Aquinas was a 13th century Dominican friar, theologian and Doctor of the Church, born in what is known today as the Lazio region of Italy. His most important contribution to Western thought is the concept of natural theology. This belief system holds that the existence of God is verified through reason and rational explanation, as opposed to through scripture or religious experience. Aquinas’ Big Ideas - Adhered to the Platonic/Aristotelian principle of realism, which holds that certain absolutes exist in the universe, including the existence of the universe itself; - Focused much of his work on reconciling Aristotelian and Christian principles, but also expressed a doctrinal openness to Jewish and Roman philosophers, all to the end of divining truth wherever it could be found; - The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) declared his Summa Theolgoiae — a compendium of all the teachings of the Catholic Church to that point — “Perennial Philosophy.”  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human 2. Aristotle (384–322 BCE) Aristotle is among the most important and influential thinkers and teachers in human history, often considered — alongside his mentor, Plato — to be a father of Western Philosophy.” Born in the northern part of ancient Greece, his writings and ideas on metaphysics, ethics, knowledge, and methodological inquiry are at the very root of human thought. Most philosophers who followed — both those who echoed and those who opposed his ideas — owed a direct debt to his wide-ranging influence. Aristotle’s Big Ideas - Asserted the use of logic as a method of argument and offered the basic methodological template for analytical discourse; - Espoused the understanding that knowledge is built from the study of things that happen in the world, and that some knowledge is universal — a prevailing set of ideas throughout Western Civilization thereafter; - Defined metaphysics as “the knowledge of immaterial being,” and used this framework to examine the relationship between substance (a combination of matter and form) and essence, from which he devises that man is comprised from a unity of the two. 3. Confucius (551–479 BCE) Chinese teacher, writer, and philosopher Confucius viewed himself as a channel for the theological ideas and values of the imperial dynasties that came before him. Confucianism would engage in historic push-pull with the philosophies of Buddhism and Taoism, experiencing ebbs and flows in influence, its high points coming during the Han (206 BCE–220 CE), Tang (618– 907 CE), and Song (960–1296 CE) Dynasties. As Buddhism became the dominant spiritual force in China, Confucianism declined in practice. Confucius’ Big Ideas - Developed a belief system focused on both personal and governmental morality through qualities such as justice, sincerity, and positive relationships with others; - Advocated for the importance of strong family bonds, including respect for the elder, veneration of one’s ancestors, and marital loyalty;  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human - Believed in the value of achieving ethical harmony through skilled judgment rather than knowledge of rules, denoting that one should achieve morality through self-cultivation. 4. René Descartes (1596–1650) A French philosopher, mathematician, and scientist, Descartes was born in France but spent 20 years of his life in the Dutch Republic. As a member of the Dutch States Army, then as the Prince of Orange and subsequently as Stadtholder (a position of national leadership in the Dutch Republic), Descartes wielded considerable intellectual influence over the period known as the Dutch Golden Age. He often distinguished himself by refuting or attempting to undo the ideas of those that came before him. Descartes’ Big Ideas - Discards belief in all things that are not absolutely certain, emphasizing the understanding of that which can be known for sure; - Is recognized as the father of analytical geometry; - Regarded as one of the leading influences in the Scientific Revolution — a period of intense discovery, revelation, and innovation that rippled through Europe between the Renaissance and Enlightenment eras (roughly speaking, 15th to 18th centuries). 5. Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-82) A Boston-born writer, philosopher, and poet, Ralph Waldo Emerson is the father of the transcendentalist movement. This was a distinctly American philosophical orientation that rejected the pressures imposed by society, materialism, and organized religion in favor of the ideals of individualism, freedom, and a personal emphasis on the soul’s relationship with the surrounding natural world. Emerson’s Big Ideas - Wrote on the importance of subjects such as self-reliance, experiential living, and the preeminence of the soul; - Referred to “the infinitude of the private man” as his central doctrine; - Was a mentor and friend to fellow influential transcendentalist Henry David Thoureau.  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human 6. Michel Foucault (1926-1984) Historian, social theorist, and philosopher Michel Foucault, born in the riverfront city of Poiltiers, France, dedicated much of his teaching and writing to the examination of power and knowledge and their connection to social control. Active in movements against racism, human rights abuses, prisoner abuses, and marginalization of the mentally ill, he is often cited as a major influence in movements for social justice, human rights, and feminism. More broadly speaking, his examination of power and social control has had a direct influence on the studies of sociology, communications, and political science. Foucault’s Big Ideas - Held the conviction that the study of philosophy must begin through a close and ongoing study of history; - Demanded that social constructs be more closely examined for hierarchical inequalities, as well as through an analysis of the corresponding fields of knowledge supporting these unequal structures; - Believed oppressed humans are entitled to rights and they have a duty to rise up against the abuse of power to protect these rights. 7. David Hume (1711–77) A Scottish-born historian, economist, and philosopher, Hume is often grouped with thinkers such as John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Sir Francis Bacon as part of a movement called British Empiricism. He was focused on creating a “naturalistic science of man” that delves into the psychological conditions defining human nature. His belief system would help to inform the future movements of utilitarianism and logical positivism, and would have a profound impact on scientific and theological discourse thereafter. Hume’s Big Ideas - Articulated the “problem of induction,” suggesting we cannot rationally justify our belief in causality, that our perception only allows us to experience events that are typically conjoined, and that causality cannot be empirically asserted as the connecting force in that relationship;  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human - Assessed that human beings lack the capacity to achieve a true conception of the self, that our conception is merely a “bundle of sensations” that we connect to formulate the idea of the self; - Hume argued against moral absolutes, instead positing that our ethical behavior and treatment of others is compelled by emotion, sentiment, and internal passions, that we are inclined to positive behaviors by their likely desirable outcomes. 8. Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) Prussian-born (and therefore identified as a German philosopher), Kant is considered among the most essential figures in modern philosophy, an advocate of reason as the source for morality, and a thinker whose ideas continue to permeate ethical, epistemological, and political debate. To his own way of thinking, Kant was pointing a way forward by resolving a central philosophical impasse. Kant’s Big Ideas - Defined the “Categorical imperative,” the idea that there are intrinsically good and moral ideas to which we all have a duty, and that rational individuals will inherently find reason in adhering to moral obligation; - Argued that humanity can achieve a perpetual peace through universal democracy and international cooperation; - Asserted that the concepts of time and space, as well as cause and effect, are essential to the human experience, and that our understanding of the world is conveyed only by our senses and not necessarily by the underlying (and likely unseen) causes of the phenomena we observe. 9. Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) A Danish theologian, social critic, and philosopher, Kierkegaard is viewed by many as the most important existentialist philosopher. His work dealt largely with the idea of the single individual. His thinking tended to prioritize concrete reality over abstract thought. He focused on the importance of the  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human individual’s subjective relationship with God, and his work addressed the themes of faith, Christian love, and human emotion. Kierkegaard’s Big Ideas - Explored the idea of objective vs. subjective truths, and argued that theological assertions were inherently subjective and arbitrary because they could not be verified or invalidated by science; - Was highly critical of the entanglement between State and Church; - First described the concept of angst, defining it as a dread the comes from anxieties over choice, freedom, and ambiguous feelings. 10. Lao-Tzu (also Laozi, lived between the 6th and 4th century BCE) Historians differ on exactly when Lao-Tzu lived and taught, but it’s largely held that sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the “old master” founded philosophical Taoism. Taoism is equally rooted in religion and philosophy. In traditional telling, though Lao-Tzu never opened a formal school, he worked as an archivist for the royal court of Zhou Dynasty. Lao-Tzu was the living embodiment of the philosophy known as Taoism and author of its primary text, the Tao Te Ching. Lao-Tzu’s Big Ideas - Espoused awareness of the self through meditation; - Disputed conventional wisdom as inherently biased, and urged followers of the Tao to find natural balance between the body, senses, and desires; - Urged individuals to achieve a state of wu wei, freedom from desire, an early staple tenet of Buddhist tradition thereafter. 11. John Locke (1632–1704) An English physicist and philosopher, John Locke was a prominent thinker during the Enlightenment period. Locke is regarded as an important contributor to the development of the social contract theory and is sometimes identified as the father of liberalism. His philosophy is said to have figured prominently into the formulation of the Declaration of Independence that initiated America’s war for independence from the British.  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human Locke’s Big Ideas - Coined the term tabula rasa (blank slate) to denote that the human mind is born unformed, and that ideas and rules are only enforced through experience thereafter; - Established the method of introspection, focusing on one’s own emotions and behaviors in search of a better understanding of the self; - Argued that in order to be true, something must be capable of repeated testing, a view that girded his ideology with the intent of scientific rigor. 12. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469–1527) Niccolo di Bernardo dei Machiavelli is at once among the most influential and widely debated of history’s thinkers. A writer, public office-holder, and philosopher of Renaissance Italy, Machiavelli both participated in and wrote prominently on political matters, to the extent that he has even been identified by some as the father of modern political science. His most prominent works described the parameters of effective rulership, in which he seems to advocate for leadership by any means which retain power, including deceit, murder, and oppression. Machiavelli’s Big Ideas - Famously asserted that while it would be best to be both loved and feared, the two rarely coincide, and thus, greater security is found in the latter; - Identified as a “humanist,” and believed it necessary to establish a new kind of state in defiance of law, tradition and particularly, the political preeminence of the Church; - Viewed ambition, competition and war as inevitable parts of human nature, even seeming to embrace all of these tendencies. 13. Karl Marx (1818–1883) A German-born economist, political theorist, and philosopher, Karl Marx wrote some of the most revolutionary philosophical content ever produced. Marx predicted that the inequalities and violence inherent in capitalism would ultimately lead to its collapse. In many ways, Karl Marx presided over a philosophical revolution that continues in the present day in myriad forms of communism, socialism, socialized democracy, and grassroots political organization.  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human Marx’s Big Ideas - Advocated a view called historical materialism, arguing for the demystification of thought and idealism in favor of closer acknowledgement of the physical and material actions shaping the world; - Argued that societies develop through class struggle, and that this would ultimately lead to the dismantling of capitalism; - Characterized capitalism as a production system in which there are inherent conflicts of interest between the bourgeoisie (the ruling class), and the proletariat (the working class), and that these conflicts are couched in the idea that the latter must sell their labor to the former for wages that offer no stake in production. 14. John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) British economist, public servant, and philosopher John Stuart Mill is considered a linchpin of modern social and political theory. He contributed a critical body of work to the school of thought called liberalism, an ideology founding on the extension of individual liberties and economic freedoms. Mill was also a proponent of utilitarianism, which holds that the best action is one that maximizes utility, or stated more simply, one that provide the greatest benefit to all. Mill’s Big Ideas - Advocated strongly for the human right of free speech, and asserted that free discourse is necessary for social and intellectual progress; - Determined that most of history can be understood as a struggle between liberty and authority, and that limits must be placed on rulership such that it reflects society’s wishes; - Stated the need for a system of “constitutional checks” on state authority as a way of protecting political liberties.  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human 15. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) Friedrich Nietzsche was a poet, cultural critic, and philosopher, as well as possessor of among the most gifted minds in human history. The German thinker’s system of ideas would have a profound impact on the Western World, contributing deeply to intellectual discourse both during and after his life. Nietzshe’s writing is articulation of the crisis of nihilism, the basic idea that all things lack meaning, including life itself. This idea in particular would remain an important component of the existentialist and surrealist movements that followed. Nietzsche’s Big Ideas - Favored perspectivism, which held that truth is not objective but is the consequence of various factors effecting individual perspective; - Articulated ethical dilemma as a tension between the master vs. slave morality; the former in which we make decisions based on the assessment of consequences, and the latter in which we make decisions based on our conception of good vs. evil; - Believed in the individual’s creative capacity to resist social norms and cultural convention in order to live according to a greater set of virtues. 16. Plato (428/427?–348/347? BCE) Greek philosopher and teacher Plato did nothing less than found the first institution of higher learning in the Western World, establishing the Academy of Athens and cementing his own status as the most important figure in the development of western philosophical tradition. As the pupil of Socrates and the mentor to Aristotle, Plato is the connecting figure in what might be termed the great triumvirate of Greek thought in both philosophy and science. Such is to say that it is nearly impossible to sum up the impact of Plato’s ideas on science, ethics, mathematics, or the evolution of thought itself other than to say it has been total, permeating, and inexorable from the tradition of rigorous thinking itself. Plato’s Big Ideas - Expressed the view, often referred to as Platonism, that those whose beliefs are limited only to perception are failing to achieve a higher level of perception, one available only to those who can see beyond the material world;  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human - Articulated the theory of forms, the belief that the material world is an apparent and constantly changing world but that another, invisible world provides unchanging causality for all that we do see; - Held the foundational epistemological view of “justified true belief,” that for one to know that a proposition is true, one must have justification for the relevant true proposition. 17. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) Rousseau was a writer, philosopher, and — unique among entrants on this list — a composer of operas and classical compositions. Born in Geneva, then a city-state in the Swiss Confederacy, Rousseau would be one of the most consequential thinkers of the Enlightenment era. His ideas on human morality, inequality, and most importantly, on the right to rule, would have an enormous and definable impact not just on thinking in Europe, but on the actual power dynamics within Western Civilization. Rousseau’s Big Ideas - Suggested that Man was at his best in a primitive state — suspended between brute animalistic urges on one end of the spectrum and the decadence of civilization on the other — and therefore uncorrupted in his morals; - Suggested that the further we deviate from our “state of nature,” the closer we move to the “decay of the species,” an idea that comports with modern environmental and conservationist philosophies; - Wrote extensively on education and, in advocating for an education that emphasizes the development of individual moral character, is sometimes credited as an early proponent of child-centered education. 18. Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–1980) A French novelist, activist, and philosopher, Sartre was a leading exponent of the 20th century existentialist movement as well as a vocal proponent of Marxism and socialism. He advocated for resistance to oppressive social constructs and argued for the importance of achieving an authentic way of being. His writing coincided with, and contrasted, the sweep of fascism through Europe, the rise of authoritarian regimes, and the spread of Nazism. Sartre’s ideas took on increased  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human importance during this time, as did his actions. Sartre became active in the socialist resistance, which aimed its activities at French Nazi collaborators. Sartre’s Big Ideas - Believed that human beings are “condemned to be free,” that because there is no Creator who is responsible for our actions, each of us alone is responsible for everything we do; - Called for the experience of “death consciousness,” an understanding of our mortality that promotes an authentic life, one spent in search of experience rather than knowledge; - Argued that the existence of free will is in fact evidence of the universe’s indifference to the individual, an illustration that our freedom to act toward objects is essentially meaningless and therefore of no consequence to be intervened upon by the world. 19. Socrates (470–399 BCE) A necessary inclusion by virtue of his role as, essentially, the founder of Western Philosophy, Socrates is nonetheless unique among entrants on this list for having produced no written works reflecting his key ideas or principles. Thus, the body of his thoughts and ideas is left to be deciphered through the works of his two most prominent students, Plato and Xenophon, as well as to the legions of historians and critics who have written on him since. And because Socrates is best known as a teacher of thought and insight, it is perhaps appropriate that his most widely recognized contribution is a way of approaching education that remains fundamentally relevant even today. The so-called Socratic Method, which involves the use of of questioning and discourse to promote open dialogue on complex topics and to lead pupils to their own insights, is on particular display in the Platonic dialogues. His inquisitive approach also positioned him as a central social and moral critic of the Athenian leadership, which ultimately led to his trial and execution for corrupting the minds of young Athenians. Socrates’ Big Ideas - Argued that Athenians were wrong-headed in their emphasis on families, careers, and politics at the expense of the welfare of their souls; - Is sometimes attributed the statement “I know that I know nothing,” to denote an awareness of his ignorance, and in general, the limitations of human knowledge; - Believed misdeeds were a consequence of ignorance, that those who engaged in nonvirtuous behavior did so because they didn’t know any better.  MODULE Introduction to the Philosophy of Human 20. Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951) Born in Austria to a wealthy family, Wittgenstein is one of philosophy’s more colorful and unusual characters. He lived a life of eccentricity and professional nomadism, dabbling in academia, military service, education, and even as a hospital orderly. His investigations of linguistics and psychology would prove particularly revelatory, offering a distinctive window through which to newly understand the nature of meaning and the limits of human conception. Wittgenstein’s Big Ideas - Argued that conceptual confusion about language is the basis for most intellectual tension in philosophy; - Asserted that the meaning of words presupposes our understanding of that meaning, and that our particular assignment of meaning comes from the cultural and social constructs surrounding us; - Resolved that because thought is inextricably tied to language, and because language is socially constructed, we have no real inner-space for the realization of our thoughts, which is to say that the language of our thoughts renders our thoughts inherently socially constructed. For further reading, please refer to the links below: http://totallyhistory.com/biography/famous-philosophers/ https://www.biographyonline.net/writers/philosophers/top-10-philosophers.html https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05wgos9GRzE&t=39s References: https://www.invaluable.com/blog/famous-philosophers/ http://famous-philosophers.com/ https://thebestschools.org/magazine/major-philosopher-ideas/