Chapter 2: Biomedical Perspective on Gender and Sexuality PDF

**CHAPTER 2** **BIOMEDICAL PERSPECTIVE ON GENDER AND SEXUALITY** ❑ **ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION** Definition of Terms Reproduction: The process of producing offspring. Human Reproductive System: Organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring Genitals: External sex o...

**CHAPTER 2** **BIOMEDICAL PERSPECTIVE ON GENDER AND SEXUALITY** ❑ **ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION** Definition of Terms Reproduction: The process of producing offspring. Human Reproductive System: Organ system by which humans reproduce and bear live offspring Genitals: External sex organs. Primary Sex Characteristics: Sex characteristics that are present at birth. Secondary Sex Characteristics: Sex characteristics that emerge during puberty. Gonads: Reproductive organs of human. The Biological Female The Biological Male **CHAPTER 1** **UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND SEXUALITY AS A SOCIAL REALITY** ***1.1 CONCEPT OF SEX, GENDER, AND SEXUALITY*** **SEX VS. GENDER** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **SEX** | **GENDER** | +===================================+===================================+ | Physical | Social (Socially-dtermined; | | | culturally-defined) | | (Biologically determined) | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Universal | Cultural | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Congenital | Learned behavior | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Unchanging | Changes over time | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Unvarying | Varies within a culture/ among | | | cultures | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ Sex (Biological Dimension) Biological and physiological differences between males and females as determined by nature. Differentiating people based on biological attributes, such as: 1\. Physical (body contour, features, genitals, reproductive organs); 2\. Genetic (chromosomes, hormones); 3\. Label (female or male; man, or woman) **Biological Basis/Determinants** **Mate** **Female** -------------------------------------- ----------------------- ----------------------- **Chromosomes** XY XX **Gonads** Testes Ovaries **Hormones** Testosterone Estrrogen **Internal Reproductive Structures** Wolffian ducts Mullerian duct system **External Sex Structures** Penis and Scrotal Sac Clitoris and Vagina Gender (Socially-determined; culturally-defined) Distinctive qualities of men and women, the masculinity and the femininity of an individual that are culturally created. The state of being male or female Socially and culturally constructed differences between men and women. Differentiating people based on: 1\) Perception 2\) Roles, and Social Expectations 3\) Femininity and Masculinity. -------------------------------------- --------------------- MALE FEMALE Logical Emotional Leader/Achiever Follower/Supporter Sexually Aggressive Sexually Submissive Independent Dependent "Can do anything, anytime, anywhere" Incompetent -------------------------------------- --------------------- HETERONORMATIVITY - The phenomenon of determining the normality of a behavior based on whether it conforms or not to the expectations relative to one's biological sex. G GENDER IDENTITY - Aspect of gender referring to the sense of who we are. How we see and experience ourselves (as a man, a woman, or neither). TRANSGENDER - Cases when a person's biological sex does not align with one's gender identity. May undergo gender reassignment surgery SEXUAL ORIENTATION ¬ Aspect of gender that pertains to our emotional and sexual attraction to a person: 1\. Heterosexuals or "straight" -- attracted to the opposite sex 2\. Homosexual (gay or lesbian) -- attracted to people of the same sex 3\. Bisexual -- attracted to both sexes, male or female ***1.2 STUDY OF GENDER AND SEXUALITY*** **EVOLUTION OF UNDERSTANDING GENDER AND SEXUALITY** Across time, humans' conception of gender and sexuality has changed. 1\. Dawn of civilizations -- human societies have high regard for women - Concept of divine feminine (the sacredness of woman due to her ability to conceive children) has prevailed --treated women equally with men 1\. Egalitarian societies -- men and women have equitable power and roles 2\. Agricultural era (presumably) -- humans' discovery of paternity (fatherhood/role of the father in conception) 3\. Industrial era -- gender disparity was intensified PATRIARCHY From the Greek word, Patriarkhes ("the rule of the father") A social system where men primarily holds power in the political and the private spheres Society is organized and maintained in a way that men rule over women and their children Patrilineal - only men can inherit property and family name Patriarchy as a social construct Viewed as a social construct and not as a biological phenomenon Came about when people started having private property instead of a communal living (F. Engels) Development of agriculture -- led to creating product surplus which allows people to have private property. Historical views on GENDER GREEK \- Aristotle, Plato, and other Greek philosophers viewed women as inferior sex and are properties of men whose only job was to obey their husbands, bear children, and take care of the household. \- Women are forbidden to learn philosophy, politics, and science. EGYPT \- Egyptian women enjoyed higher social status than Greek women because they can inherit property and engage in trade (Herodotus) \- However, Greek influence quickly spread in Egypt through the conquests of Alexander the Great across Asia and Africa. CHINA \- Confucianism\'s written rules -- dictate how women should conduct themselves \- "Three obedience's and four virtues" and "Precepts of women" states that women should obey their father, when married she is to obey her husband, and when widowed she is to obey her son. Patriarchy has taken on subtle forms of oppression: Sexism -- prejudice, stereotypes, and discrimination based on sex; Gender pay gap -- men earn more than women Underrepresentation in politics, military, executive positions, etc.; Rape on women and the stigma making women ashamed to report the crime; WOMEN EMPOWERMENT First Wave: 1848 -- 1920 \- primarily characterized by the women's suffrage movement and their championing of the woman's right to vote. Second Wave: 1963 - 1980s \- encompassed far more issues such as pay equality, reproductive rights, female sexuality, and domestic violence \- made some attempts to encompass racial justice, it remained a lesser priority than gender. \- Class and race were viewed as secondary issues. Third Wave: 1990s \- challenging female heteronormativity. \- sought to redefine femininity and sought to celebrate differences across race, class, and sexual orientations. \- development of intersectionality began to take form. Fourth Wave: Present Day \- characterized by action-based viral campaigns, protests, and movements like \#MeToo advancing from the fringes of society into the headlines of our everyday news. \- It seeks to further deconstruct gender norms. **THE STUDY OF GENDER AND SEXUALITY** Social research -- the process of investigating social realities Research approach -- the orientation on understanding social realities Ethics in research -- considerations in conducting research to make sure that the well-being of the participants are ensured, and that the outcome of the study is sound without being undue harm to people involved Gender role or sex role: \- "sets of culturally defined behaviors such as masculinity and femininity" \- Not fixed; vary in terms of time and country or tribe \- Binary system -- men as masculine (matipuno/matapang); women as feminine (mahinhin) -- the NORM In gender studies, we are asked to disrupt and question these kinds of social expectations, gender roles, and gender norms. GENDER STUDIES A field of study concerned about how reproductive roles are interpreted and negotiated in the society through gender Analyzing, and examining society to notice power relations in the seemingly "simple things" Helps us see the issues in our everyday lives through a different lens Came about in the mid 1970's after the 2 nd -- wave of feminism as a way to challenge the male-defined and male-centered knowledge Gender studies is not just for women or all about women, it is about everyone It explores how our gender roles have changed throughout our history and how it created inequalities. How society repressed women's potential "Is it still right to say that men are the providers of the family when both mothers and fathers now work and earn money?" Gender roles are socially constructed, not "born with". Society, through a lifelong process of normalization, encourages or reprimands behaviors to make a child adapt to these social expectations. Examples: 1\. Boys are encouraged to be brave, to play rough, to be loud and not to show signs of weakness like crying; Girls are discouraged from playing rough and being loud, but gentle and soft. Otherwise, they are reprimanded 2\. Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people often do not fit in the traditional binary gender roles so they are often reprimanded, bullied and discriminated 3\. LGBTs are often subjected to violence and hate just because they do not fit in what society calls "normal" Gender studies lets us analyze the creation and maintenance of these gender norms so that it does not create inequalities in our social, political, and economic spheres. GENDER STUDIES and RESEARCH GS utilizes a systematic approach in identifying problems, making hypotheses and assumptions, gathering data, and making conclusions -- research process Approaches in Research: 1\) QUALITATIVE \- Approach Focuses more on meanings created and interpretations made by people about their own personal or vicarious (observed) experiences Used when you want to know how women, men, or LGBTQ+ live their lives on a daily basis and how they make sense of their lived experiences \- Methods Phenomenology -- conducting intensive interviews with individuals who have experienced a particular event and understanding their "lived experience" Hermeneutics -- understanding the meaning of texts (literary/art works) and what they convey about human realities Ethnography and ethnomethodology -- immersing in a community and taking note of their experiences, beliefs, attitudes, & practices 2\) QUANTITATIVE \- Approach Focuses more on characterizing a population (total number of individuals in a group) or a sample ( a sub-group within the population), making generalizations about the population based on the behavior of the sample Used when you want to know how many Filipino adolescents engaged into a romantic relationship, how many still believe in marriage \- Methods Survey -- collecting information from a sample Experiment -- creating actual set-ups to observe behavior of people in an experimental group (receives treatment like training or new experience) and comparing it to the behavior of people in control group (without any treatment) MIXED METHODS \- Combining qualitative and quantitative methods to derive data form multiple sources. ETHICAL PRINCIPLES \- Making sure that people involved in the research are protected from harm ETHICS in GENDER and SEXUALITY RESEARCH: 1\. Informed consent \- Researchers should make sure that the participants in the study are aware of the purpose and processes of the study they are participating in. \- Should ensure that only those participants who agree (in writing) will be included, and that they shall not force any participant to join 2\. Confidentiality and anonymity \- Researchers should not reveal any information provided by the participants, much so, their identity to anyone who are not concerned with the study. \- All data gathered from surveys or interviews should also be placed in a secure location or filing system 3\. Non-maleficence and beneficence \- A study should do no harm (non-maleficence) to anyone. \- Especially in researches involving humans, a study should be beneficial (beneficence) for it to be worth implementing 4\. Distributive justice \- Any study should not disadvantage a particular group, especially the marginalized and oppressed (e.g. poor, women, LGBTQ+, elderly). \- The benefits of the study should be for all. **CHAPTER 3.1** **PSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE OF GENDER & SEXUALITY** ***PSYCHOSOCIAL DIMENSION OF HUMAN SENSES AND SEXUAL BEHAVIOR*** REPRODUCTIVE ROLE \- Social script ascribed to individuals performing to their role in child-bearing or child-rearing and related tasks such as maintaining the household PRODUCTIVE ROLE \- Social script ascribed to individuals pertaining to their role in economic production and related tasks such as engaging in public affairs and living in the world of work. What does psychosocial mean? PSYCHOLOGICAL \- Anything associated with mental process and behaviors. SOCIAL \- Associated with human relationships, connections, and interactions. PSYCHOLOGY \- These domains means that in studying gender and sexuality, it is important to look into the way people think **(cognition),** feel **(affect),** and behave **(behavior)** since these are linked to one another. 3 Primary Psychological Domains COGNITION - people's thought processes such as memory, perception, and information processing BEHAVIOR - people's observable or not readily observable actions AFFECT - emotions and feelings SOCIOLOGY \- Field of science which concerns itself with the human person's realities and experiences as part of groups and institutions including the structures and functions of these institutions, and the dynamics of human relationships within them. UNDERSTANDING THE PSYCHOSOCIAL DOMAIN SELF-AWARENESS \- conscious understanding of something In the context of gender and sexuality, we ask: What am I physiologically? What is my gender? What is my sexual orientation? How am I expressing my gender? How do I feel about my sexuality Am I happy with what I am? OTHER-AWARENESS \- understanding others In the context of gender and sexuality, we ask: What is he/she physiologically? What is his/her preferences? How is he/she different from me? How is he/she similar from me? What is his/her motivations and aspirations? INTIMACY & RELATIONSHIP HUMAN RELATIONSHIP \- A bond formed between two/more people, manifested through communications and interactions INTIMACY \- Process of knowing others and allowing others to know us SOCIALIZATION \- The process by which we learn cultural norms and traditions. WELL-BEING AS A PSYCHOSOCIAL GOAL \- A state of satisfaction, meaning, and purpose. OBJECTIVE WELL-BEING Observed, outward, and can be evaluated through the presence/absence of particular elements in our environment. Does the physical environment allow expression of diversity? Are health care systems and services responsive to the needs of people with different sexes, genders, etc.? Are there services and policies in place to mitigate abuse and different forms of violence related to gender and sexuality? SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING \- Personal experience of satisfaction, meaning, and purpose. SEX and SENSES SENSORIUM \- The totality of our sensory experience and perception. HUMAN AFFECT and the SENSES \- Our affect (emotions & feelings) actually play a major role in our behaviour. What are the different sensory experience related to sexuality? VISUAL EXPERIENCE \- Overall, both men and women value physical attractiveness and this is true across many different cultures. \- However, there are some studies that have explored gender differences in visual stimuli and sexual arousal. \- The study of Rupp & Wallen found that when confronted by an intimate interaction, men would tend to be rather influenced by visual cues. \- On the other hand, women were found to be more influenced by the context. OLFACTORY EXPERIENCE \- Scientists have tried to explain how human olfaction influence sexuality. Our noses are the best compass to find a suitable partner because of two reasons: 1\. Pheromones \- Chemical molecules released in humans, insects, and animals that trigger a response to or elicit specific behavioral expressions or hormonal changes from the opposite sex, the same sex, or both sexes of the same species. Hypothalamus \- the part of the brain that interprets these chemical messages. \- this part comprises much of the **Limbic System**, the part of the body responsible of managing our emotions, including sexual behavior. 2\. Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) \- A group of genes that code for proteins that help the immune system recognize foreign substances. \- It is because of these genes that we feel attracted to another person's **signature odor**. Ex. Sweaty T-shirt Experiment \- Heterosexual females tend to like wearing floral sweet scents but want musky-spicy scent to be worn by their partners. \- Heterosexual males and homosexual females preferred wearing musky-spicy scent and liked their partners to wear floral-sweet scent. \- Homosexual males wanted musky-spicy for themselves and their partner Muscarella, Arantes, and Konscol (2011) TACTILE EXPERIENCES \- Touch is an element of intimacy and holds meaning. Elements of Touch: Tactile Thermal Vibrational **Primary Erogenous Zone** **--** mouth, anus, genitals, & nipples **Secondary Erogenous Zone** **--** back, cheek, neck, and buttocks \- is believed to influence tribal behavior and maternal bonding. AUDITORY EXPERIENCE \- In sexual interactions, couples may give verbal erotic encouraging-words that trigger sexual response or verbal expression of affection. \- "I LOVE YOU" \- "I MISS YOU" \- "YOU SMELL GOOD" SEXUAL BEHAVIORS DEFINITION OF TERMS Sexual Behavior -- an action with sexual intention and context. Erotic -- related to sexual stimulation; has something to do with erogenous zones Sexual Response Cycle -- sequence of events from arousal to orgasm to resolution of sexual tension. Sexual Dysfunction -- a concern or problem in any of these phases of the sexual response cycle Copulatory Behavior -- related to the insertion of the penis to the vagina Paraphilia -- arousal from non-living objects or nonconsenting persons BEHAVIOR \- refers to actions Overt -- observable Covert -- not readily observable by the naked eye MOTIVATION \- something that drives us to do something FREQUENCY \- how many times an action is done in a span of time DURATION \- how long does an action take place INTENSITY \- magnitude by which is done DIVERSITY \- varieties of similar behaviour done in various contexts SEXUAL BEHAVIORS \- These are actions that humans interpret as an expression of their sexual motivation or intention. Generally erotic. AIM OF THE BEHAVIOR Auto-Erotic -- self-directed Homo-Erotic -- same sex Hetero-Erotic -- other sex COPULATION \- insertion of the penis to the vagina Oral Stimulation of the Genitals \- Fellatio -- oral stimulation of the penis \- Cunnilingus -- oral stimulation of the vagina \- Anal Sex -- stimulation or penetration of the anal orifice Sexual Response Cycle Kaplan's Model Desire-Orgasm-Arousal SEXUAL RESPONSE DYSFUNCTIONS \- refers to a problem during any phase of the sexual response cycle that prevents an individual or couple from experiencing satisfaction. **1. Sexual Desire Disorder -** an individual has low levels of desire or has an aversion to sexual activities. **2. Sexual Arousal Disorders -** an individual has problems in achieving necessary physiological state of copulation \- Erectile dysfunction in males **3. Orgasmic Disorder -** an individual has problems in achieving orgasm. \- premature ejaculation among males; \- male and female orgasmic disorders **4. Sexual Pain Disorders -** an experience of pain during the sexual response cycle. \- painful erection or dyspareunia \- vaginal spasms or vaginismus PARAPHILIAS \- an individual gets sexually aroused by an object, a person, or a circumstance that are unusual. \- **Not prevalent** \- **Dangerous to self and others** \- **Bizarre and are not socially acceptable** \- **Distressing either to the doer or to** **other people involved in the act.** PARAPHILIC DISORDER \- When the urge (recurrent) lasts for **[at least six months]** - When the individual has **[acted]** on these sexual urges with a **[nonconsenting person]**, or the sexual urges or fantasies cause **[clinically significant distress]** or **[impairment]** in social, occupational, or other important areas in functioning. \- Only trained **[psychologists]** or **[medical doctors]** can make such diagnosis after conducting lengthy and comprehensive assessments. 1\. EXHIBITIONISM \- pleasure from exposing one's genitals to non-consenting people 2\. FETISHISM \- arousal from non-living objects 3\. FROTTEURISM \- touching or rubbing one's body or genitals to a nonconsenting person 4\. PEDOPHILIA \- arousal from prepubescent children 5\. SEXUAL MASOCHISM \- arousal from being humiliated, beaten, bound 6\. SEXUAL SADISM \- arousal from inflicting pain to others 7\. TRANSVESTIC FETISHISM (for heterosexual males only) \- arousal from wearing clothing by the opposite sex during sexual activities 8\. VOYEURISM \- observing other people engaged in sexual activities