Introduction To Psychology Personality PDF

14 Personality  Lecture Preview Personality Theories: – Psychoanalytic theory – Humanistic models – Behavioral and social learning theories – Trait models Who do you want to talk to in a party?  What kind of person is Al? What kind of person is Bill? Please f...

14 Personality  Lecture Preview Personality Theories: – Psychoanalytic theory – Humanistic models – Behavioral and social learning theories – Trait models Who do you want to talk to in a party?  What kind of person is Al? What kind of person is Bill? Please find 1 or two people for a group. There are 12 sentence completions of Al and Bill, candidates for a position in a business firm. Suppose you are among the interviewing board. Your task is to read their sentence completions and then answer 5 questions that follow.  Definitions of personality Relatively enduring predispositions influence our behavior across many situations. These traits account partly for our behavior’s consistency across time and situations. – State – a temporary activation of a particular behavior – Both traits and states are descriptions of behavior, not explanations.  Approaches Nomothetic (general principles) vs. idiographic approaches (unique characteristics) to studying personality  Causes of Personality: Genes and environment Studies of twins and adopted children indicate that heredity contributes to the observed differences in personality. – However, no single gene controls much of the variance. Family environment evidently contributes rather little. Some personality variation relates to unshared environment. – Unshared environment – the aspects of environment that differ from one individual to another, even within a family  Influences of Age, Culture, and Cohort The older people get, the more slowly they change. – One reason for personality to become more fixed is that older people usually stay in the same environment, doing the same things year after year. Self-ratings from one country are not easily comparable to those from another. – The best way to compare personalities across cultures is to observe actual behavior. Researchers have found generational differences in personality. – Results from research show that the era in which you live exerts a major influence on personality development.  Figure 14.5 ► Six aspects of personality show different patterns of change over age based on the means of longitudinal research studies. The numbers along the vertical axis represent changes from the earliest age tested, measured in terms of standard deviations. (From Roberts, Walton, & Viechtbauer, 2006)  Four Main Perspectives Psychodynamic Behavioral Humanistic Trait P E R S O N A L I T Y  Sigmund Freud and the Psychodynamic Approach Sigmund Freud interpreted dreams, slips of the tongue, and so forth to infer unconscious thoughts and motivations. Psychodynamic theory – view that relates personality to the interplay of conflicting forces, including unconscious ones, within the individual. Full documentary: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nJm7AhdGbDk Figure 14.1 Freud's Model of Personality Structure. According to some authors, Freud’s conception of personality is analogous to an iceberg, with the conscious mind being the tip barely visible above the surface and the unconscious being the vast submerged area entirely underwater. Nevertheless, we shouldn’t take the iceberg metaphor too literally (indeed, Freud himself apparently never used it), because according to Freud, different aspects of personality are in constant interaction.  Structure of Personality Freud thought that the psyche consisted of three components: – Id – basic instincts; operates on pleasure principle – Ego – principal decision maker; operates on reality principle – Superego – sense of morality Conflict between these causes distress. Figure 14.2 Id, Ego, and Superego. Many works of art portray an individual trying to make a difficult moral decision with a devil on one shoulder—urging immoral behavior—and an angel—urging moral behavior—on the other. Freudians would say that such artwork captures the distinction among ego (the person trying to make the decision), id (demon), and superego (angel).  Anxiety and Defense Mechanisms The ego will try to minimize anxiety via defense mechanisms. Although essential for psychological health, Freud thought over-reliance on one or two could cause problems  Defense Mechanisms against Anxiety Defense mechanisms – method employed by ego to defend itself against anxiety – Repression – according to Freudian theory, the motivated removal of something to the unconscious – Denial – the refusal to believe unpleasant information – Rationalization – attempt to demonstrate that one’s actions are justifiable – Displacement – diversion of a behavior or thought away from its natural target toward a less threatening target – Regression – return to a more immature level of functioning – Projection – attributing one’s own undesirable characteristics to other people – Reaction formation – presenting oneself as the opposite of what one really is in an effort to reduce anxiety – Sublimation – the transformation of sexual or aggressive energies into culturally acceptable, even admirable, behaviors Defense Mechanisms examples in movies  Stages of Psychosexual Development Freud believed that we pass through stages, each of which is focused on an erogenous zone. Freud insisted that sexuality begins in infancy. Individuals may get fixated in a stage and have difficulty moving on.  Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Stage Effects of Fixation (approximate ages) Sexual Interests at This Stage Oral stage Sucking, swallowing, biting Lasting concerns with (birth to 1½ years) dependence and independence; pleasure from eating, drinking, and other oral activities Anal stage Expelling feces, retaining feces Orderliness or sloppiness, (1½ to 3 years) stinginess or wastefulness, stubbornness Phallic stage Touching penis or clitoris; Difficulty feeling closeness. (3 to 5 or 6 years) Oedipus complex Males: fear of castration Females: penis envy Latent period Sexual interests suppressed — (5 or 6 to puberty) Genital stage Sexual contact with other — (puberty onward) people  Changes in Freud’s Theory Initially, Freud pointed to childhood sexual abuse as the cause of personality problems. Later, he said the problem was childhood sexual fantasies, such as the Oedipus complex. – Oedipus complex – according to Freud, period when a boy develops a sexual interest in his mother and competitive aggression toward his father His only evidence for his view was that he thought he could infer these childhood events from his patients’ dreams and symptoms.  Scientific Evaluation Very influential in our thinking about personality, but there are major criticisms: – Failed predictions – Questionable conception of unconscious – Unrepresentative samples – Emphasis on shared environment  Karen Horney, a Neo-Freudian Neo-Freudians – psychologists who kept part of Freud’s theory while modifying others Karen Horney, a neo-Freudian, revised some of Freud’s theories and paid greater attention to cultural influences. She pioneered the study of feminine psychology.  Carl Jung and the Collective Unconscious Collective unconscious – inborn thoughts and images that relate to the cumulative experience of preceding generations Carl G. Jung rejected Freud’s concept that dreams hide their meaning from the conscious mind: “To me dreams are a part of nature, which harbors no intention to deceive, but expresses something as best it can” (Jung, 1965, p. 161). Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology Alfred Adler emphasized the ways in which personality depended on people’s goals, especially their way of striving for a sense of superiority. Individual psychology – psychology of the person as a whole rather than parts Striving for superiority – a desire to seek personal excellence and fulfillment According to Adler, the healthiest style of life is one that emphasizes social interest. – Social interest – a sense of solidarity and identification with other people that leads to constructive action  The Learning Approach The Learning Approach Must of what we call personality is learned through individual experience, imitation, or vicarious reinforcement and punishment.  Humanistic Psychology Emphasize consciousness, values, and abstract beliefs, including spiritual experiences and the beliefs that people live and die for According to humanistic psychologists: – Personality depends on people’s beliefs and perceptions of the world. – People are essentially good and strive to achieve their potential. – People are free to make deliberate, conscious decisions.  Carl Rogers and Unconditional Positive Regard Carl Rogers maintained that people naturally strive toward positive goals without special urging. He recommended that people relate to one another with unconditional positive regard. Unconditional positive regard – the complete, unqualified acceptance of another person as he or she is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs  Self-Actualization Unconditional positive regard (Rogers) – Acceptance and approval without conditions. Self-actualized people tend to be creative, spontaneous, and accepting of themselves and others (Maslow) –May seem difficult to work with or aloof Prone to peak experiences You are what you can achieve Mahatma Gandhi is one of the historical figures whom Abraham Maslow considered to be self-actualized.  Personality Traits and States Trait – a consistent tendency in behavior, such as shyness, hostility, or talkativeness State – a temporary activation of a particular behavior Both traits and states are descriptions of behavior, not explanations.  Derivation of the Big Five Personality Traits An initial list of almost 18,000 words that might be used to describe personality was narrowed down to 35 traits. – Although none of the 35 personality traits were synonyms or antonyms of one another, many of them overlapped. Psychologists looked for clusters of traits that correlate strongly with one another, but don’t correlate with the other clusters. – Using this approach, researchers found what they call the Big Five personality traits. » Big Five personality traits (five-factor model) – emotional stability, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to new experience  The Five-Factors Model of Personality Neuroticism Typical true–false question to Trait Description measure it Emotional stability Resistance to unpleasant I have few major worries. emotions Extraversion Seeking excitement and I make friends easily. social contact Agreeableness Compassionate and I believe others have good trusting intentions. Conscientiousness Self-disciplined and dutiful I complete most tasks on time or early. Openness Stimulated by new ideas I believe art is important for its own sake. Big Five in Harry Porter  Big Five and Behavior Predict many important real-world behaviors – Job performance and grades in school – Physical health and life span  Cross-cultural Studies of the Big Five Several studies found results consistent with the Big Five model for people in other cultures using other languages However, some do find cross-cultural differences: – A study in China identified traits corresponding to extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and loyalty to Chinese traditions. – Another study with Chinese students identified an interpersonal relatedness factor which emphasizes the interdependence concern in the Chinese personality  The Chinese Big 5 - Interpersonal Relatedness (Cheung et al., 1996) Harmony Ren Qin 1 2 Modernization* 5 Thrift/ 3 Extravagance 4 Face*  Can Personality Change? Some variability prior to age 30, but little thereafter Some evidence for changing of personality psychopharmacologically, but should we?  Strengths and Limitations of trait theories Provide useful descriptions of personality and its structure Provided the foundation of valid and reliable personality devices Can lead people to accept and use oversimplified classifications and descriptions Underestimate socio-cultural influences on behaviour PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT  Lecture Preview Dubious methods Self-reported inventory – MMPI – The NEO-PI – MBTI Projective assessments – Rorschach – Thematic Apperception Test – Human finger drawing Standardized personality tests 5 Study: Facebook “likes” serves as personality test http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4xGsb9MSFgQ (3:43)  How to access personality? Plagued by number of dubious methods: – Phrenology (head shape) – Physiognomy (facial characteristics) – Sheldon's body types Figure 14.4 Sheldon’s Body Types. According to William Sheldon, three major body types are associated with different personality traits. Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Developed using empirical method of test construction, so it has low face validity. – “I think newborn babies look very much like little monkeys?” The is the most researched test. – 567 true-false questions – 10 basic scales  MMPI Contains three validity scales designed to detect various types of distorted responses: – L (Lie) detects impression management e.g., I occasionally become angry. – F (Frequency) detects malingering. e.g., I have a cough most of the time. – K (Correction) measures defensive responding. An MMPI-2 Profile.  MMPI Evaluated Scientifically Most scales are both reliable as well as valid for differentiating among mental disorders. Problematic in several ways: – Redundant scales – Not used for formal diagnosis – Scales can be misused.  The NEO PI-R NEO PI-R (NEO personality inventory- revised) – test that measures neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness  The NEO PI-R ► Figure 14.6 This graph shows the similarity of countries in terms of Neuroticism (vertical axis) and Extraversion (horizon axis). Countries forming a cluster (e.g., Chinese, Indians, South Koreans at the south-west corner) are more similar in these two personalities. (From McCrae & Terracciano, 2005).  The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator A test of normal personality, loosely based on Carl Jung’s theories The MBTI classifies people as: – Extraverted or introverted – Sensing or intuitive – Thinking or feeling – Judging or perceiving  Projective Tests Ask examinees to interpret or make sense of ambiguous stimuli Based on a projective hypothesis: – When interpreting ambiguous stimuli, people project aspects of their personality onto them. Controversial because reliability and validity are in dispute  Rorschach Inkblot Test Ten symmetrical inkblots, five black-and-white and five with color Respondents say what each inkblot resembles. This supposedly reveals respondent's traits. Figure 14.6 An Inkblot Similar to That on the Rorschach Inkblot Test. Although widely used, the Rorschach appears not to possess the magical powers often attributed to it by its most enthusiastic proponents.  Thematic Apperception Test Requires subject to construct a story based on pictures Little evidence for adequate reliability or validity for most applications Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)  Other Projective Tests Human figure drawing tests require you to draw a person(s) in any way you wish. – Low to nonexistent correlations between drawings and personality traits. – Poor test-retest reliability. Pitfalls in Personality Assessment PT Barnum effect – The tendency to accept descriptors that apply to almost everyone as applying specifically to us. – Astrology and tarot readings Overall, personality assessment can be useful, but only if using valid, reliable instruments.  Standardized Personality Tests Standardized test – method of examination that is administered according to rules that specify how to interpret the results An important step for standardizing a test is to determine the distribution of scores. – Such information determines whether a particular score on a personality test is within the normal range or whether it is more typical of people with a disorder.  Uses and Misuses of Personality Tests Personality tests can help assess personality, but their results should be interpreted cautiously. – Because the tests are not entirely accurate, a score that seems characteristic of a psychological disorder may occur in many people without that disorder.