Variations in Psychological Attributes PDF

This is the marked PDF. To score 100% in this chapter you just need to understand and learn all the marked part. All the best! 7009906826 www.psychshots.com VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL AT TRIBUTES After reading this chapter, you would be able to:...

This is the marked PDF. To score 100% in this chapter you just need to understand and learn all the marked part. All the best! 7009906826 www.psychshots.com VARIATIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL AT TRIBUTES After reading this chapter, you would be able to: understand psychological attributes on which people differ from each other, learn about different methods that are used to assess psychological attributes, explain what constitutes intelligent behaviour, learn how psychologists assess intelligence to identify mentally challenged and gifted individuals, understand how intelligence has different meaning in different cultures, and understand the difference between intelligence and aptitude. Introduction Individual Differences in Human Functioning Assessment of Psychological Attributes Intelligence Theories of Intelligence Theory of Multiple Intelligences Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Planning, Attention-arousal, and Simultaneous- successive Model of Intelligence Individual Differences in Intelligence CONTENTS Variations of Intelligence Some Misuses of Intelligence Tests (Box 1.1) Culture and Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Key Terms Characteristics of Emotionally Intelligent Summary Persons (Box 1.2) Special Abilities Review Questions Aptitude : Nature and Measurement Project Ideas Creativity Weblinks Pedagogical Hints 1 Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes Rationalised 2023-24  If you observe your friends, classmates or relatives, you will find how they differ from each other in the manner they perceive, learn, and think, as also in their performance on various tasks. Such individual differences can be noticed in every walk of life. That people differ from one another is obvious. Introduction In Class XI, you have learnt about psychological principles that are applied to understand human behaviour. We also need to know how people differ, what brings about these differences, and how such differences can be assessed. You will recall how one of the main concerns of modern psychology has been the study of individual differences from the time of Galton. This chapter will introduce you to some of the fundamentals of individual differences. One of the most popular psychological attributes which has been of interest to psychologists is Intelligence. People differ from each other in their ability to understand complex ideas, adapt to environment, learn from experience, engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles. In this chapter, you will study the nature of intelligence, changing definitions of intelligence, cultural differences in intelligence, range and variations in the intellectual competencies of people, and the nature of special abilities or aptitudes. exemplifies a typical combination of INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN HUMAN various traits. The question which you may FUNCTIONING like to pose is how and why people differ. Individual variations are common within This, in fact, is the subject matter of the and across all species. Variations add study of individual dif ferences. For colour and beauty to nature. For a psychologists, individual differences refer to moment, think of a world around you distinctiveness and variations among where each and every object is of the same people’s characteristics and behaviour colour, say red or blue or green. How would patterns. Physical & Psychological the world appear to you? Certainly not a While many psychologists believe that beautiful one! Would you prefer to live in our behaviours are influenced by our such a world? In all likelihood, your personal traits, some others hold the view answer will be ‘no’. Like objects, people too that our behaviours are influenced more by possess different combinations of traits. situational factors. This latter view is Variability is a fact of nature, and known as situationism, which states that individuals are no exception to this. They situations and circumstances in which one vary in terms of physical characteristics, is placed influence one’s behaviour. A such as height, weight, strength, hair person, who is generally aggressive, may colour, and so on. They also vary along behave in a submissive manner in the psychological dimensions. They may be presence of her/his top boss. Sometimes, intelligent or dull, dominant or submissive, the situational influences are so powerful creative or not so creative, outgoing or that individuals with differing personality withdrawn, etc. The list of variations can traits respond to them in almost the same be endless. Different traits can exist in ways. The situationist perspective views varying degrees in an individual. In this human behaviour relatively more as a result sense, each one of us is unique as s/he of influence of external factors. 2 Psychology Rationalised 2023-24  her/his family and neighbourhood, we ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL may consider assessing her/his ATTRIBUTES personality characteristics. For a poorly Psychological attributes are involved in motivated person, we may assess her/his very simple phenomena like in time taken interests and preferences. Psychological to react to a stimulus, i.e. reaction time, assessment uses systematic testing and also in highly global concepts like procedures to evaluate abilities, behaviours, happiness. It is difficult to count and and personal qualities of individuals. specify the number of psychological attributes that can be assessed. Some Domains of Psychological Assessment is the first step in Attributes understanding a psychological attribute. Psychological attributes are not linear or Assessment refers to the measurement of unidimensional. They are complex and psychological attributes of individuals and expressed in terms of dimensions. A line their evaluation, often using multiple is a mere aggregate of many points. A point methods in terms of certain standards of occupies no space. But think of a box. It comparison. Any attribute will be said to occupies space. It can be described only in exist in a person only if it can be measured terms of its three dimensions, i.e. length, by using scientific procedur es. For width, and height. Similar is the case with example, when we say, “Harish is psychological attributes. They are usually dominant”, we are referring to the degree multi-dimensional. If you want to have a of ‘dominance’ in Harish. This statement is complete assessment of a person, you will based on our own assessment of need to assess how s/he functions in ‘dominance’ in him. Our assessment may various domains or areas, such as be informal or formal. Formal assessment cognitive, emotional, social, etc. is objective, standardised, and organised. We will discuss in this chapter some On the other hand, informal assessment important attributes that are of interest to varies from case to case and from one psychologists. These attributes ar e assessor to another and, therefore, is open categorised on the basis of varieties of tests to subjective interpretations. Psychologists used in psychological literature. are trained in making formal assessment 1. Intelligence is the global capacity to of psychological attributes. understand the world, think rationally, Once assessment is done, we can use and use available resources effectively this information to predict how Harish will when faced with challenges. Intelligence probably behave in future. We may predict tests provide a global measure of a that Harish, if given a chance to lead a person’s general cognitive competence team, will most likely be an authoritarian including the ability to profit from leader. If the predicted consequence is not schooling. Generally, students having what we want, we may want to intervene low intelligence are not likely to do so to effect a change in Harish’s behaviour. well in school-related examinations, but The attribute chosen for assessment their success in life is not associated depends upon our purpose. In order to only with their intelligence test scores. help a weak student per form well in 2. Aptitude refers to an individual’s examinations, we may assess her/his underlying potential for acquiring skills. intellectual strengths and weaknesses. If Aptitude tests are used to predict what a person fails to adjust with members of an individual will be able to do if given 3 Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes Rationalised 2023-24  proper environment and training. A used for the purposes of clinical person with high mechanical aptitude diagnosis, guidance, personnel can profit from appropriate training and selection, placement, and training. can do well as an engineer. Similarly, Besides objective tests, psychologists a person having high language aptitude have also developed certain projective can be trained to be a good writer. tests, especially for the assessment of 3. Interest is an individual’s preference for personality. You will learn about them engaging in one or more specific in Chapter 2. activities relative to others. Assessment Interview involves seeking information of interests of students may help to from a person on a one-to-one basis. You decide what subjects or courses they may see it being used when a can pursue comfortably and with counsellor interacts with a client, a pleasure. Knowledge of interests helps salesperson makes a door -to-door us in making choices that promote life survey regarding the usefulness of a satisfaction and performance on jobs. particular product, an employer selects 4. Personality refers to relatively enduring employees for her/his organisation, or a characteristics of a person that make journalist interviews important people her or him distinct from others. on issues of national and international Personality tests try to assess an importance. individual’s unique characteristics, e.g. Case Study is an in-depth study of the whether one is dominant or submissive, individual in ter ms of her/his outgoing or withdrawn, moody or psychological attributes, psychological emotionally stable, etc. Personality history in the context of her/his assessment helps us to explain an psychosocial and physical environment. individual’s behaviour and predict how Case studies are widely used by she/he will behave in future. clinical psychologists. Case analyses of 5. Values are enduring beliefs about an the lives of great people can also be ideal mode of behaviour. A person highly illuminating for those willing to having a value sets a standard for lear n from their life experiences. guiding her/his actions in life and also Case studies are based on data for judging others. In value assessment, generated by different methods, e.g. we try to determine the dominant interview, observation, questionnaire, values of a person (e.g., political, psychological tests, etc. religious, social or economic). Observation involves employing systematic, organised, and objective Assessment Methods procedures to record behavioural Several methods are used for psychological phenomena occurring naturally in real assessment. You have learnt about some time. Certain phenomena such as of these methods in Class XI. Let us recall mother-child interactions can be easily their key features. studied through observation. The major Psychological Test is an objective problems with observational methods and standardised measure of an are that the observer has little control individual’s mental and/or behavioural over the situation and the reports may characteristics. Objective tests have suffer from subjective interpretations of been developed to measure all the the observer. dimensions of psychological attributes Self-Report is a method in which a (e.g., intelligence, aptitude, etc.) person provides factual information described above. These tests are widely about herself/himself and/or opinions, 4 Psychology Rationalised 2023-24  beliefs, etc. that s/he holds. Such we discuss some important theories of infor mation may be obtained by intelligence. using an interview schedule or a questionnaire, a psychological test, or Activity Discovering the Attributes of a personal diary. 1.1 Intelligent Persons 1. Who is the most intelligent of your INTELLIGENCE classmates? Think of her/him in your mind’s eye, and write down Intelligence is a key construct employed to a few words/phrases describing that person. know how individuals differ from one 2. Think of 3 other persons in your another. It also provides an understanding immediate environment, whom of how people adapt their behaviour you consider intelligent, and write according to the environment they live in. down a few words/phrases In this section, you will read about describing the attributes of each. intelligence in its various forms. 3. Judge the newer additions with reference to what you wrote in item Psychological notion of intelligence is no. 1. quite different from the common sensical 4. Make a list of all the attributes you notion of intelligence. If you watch an consider as manifestations of intelligent person, you are likely to see in intelligent behaviours. Using these her/him attributes like mental alertness, attributes, try to frame a definition. 5. Discuss your report with your ready wit, quickness in learning, and classmates and the teacher. ability to understand relationships. The 6. Compare it with what the Oxford Dictionary explains intelligence as researchers have to say about the power of perceiving, learning , ‘intelligence’. understanding, and knowing. Early intelligence theorists also used these attributes in defining intelligence. Alfred Binet was one of the first psychologists THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE who worked on intelligence. He defined Psychologists have proposed several intelligence as the ability to judge well, theories of intelligence. Theories can be understand well, and reason well. broadly classified as either representing a Wechsler, whose intelligence tests are most psychometric/structural approach or an widely used, understood intelligence in information-processing approach. terms of its functionality, i.e. its value for The psychometric approach considers adaptation to environment. He defined it as intelligence as an aggregate of abilities. It the global and aggregate capacity of an expresses the individual’s performance in individual to think rationally, act terms of a single index of cognitive abilities. purposefully, and to deal effectively with On the other hand, the information- her/his environment. Other psychologists, processing approach describes the such as Gardner and Sternberg have pr ocesses people use in intellectual suggested that an intelligent individual not reasoning and problem solving. The major only adapts to the environment, but also focus of this approach is on how an actively modifies or shapes it. You will be intelligent person acts. Rather than able to understand the concept of focusing on structure of intelligence or its intelligence and how it has evolved, when underlying dimensions, infor mation- 5 Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes Rationalised 2023-24  Trick to remember - SWIM VPN processing approaches emphasise independent of the others. These primary studying cognitive functions underlying abilities are: (i) Verbal Comprehension intelligent behaviour. We will discuss (grasping meaning of words, concepts, and some representative theories of these ideas), (ii) Numerical Abilities (speed and approaches. accuracy in numerical and computational We mentioned above that Alfred Binet skills), (iii) Spatial Relations (visualising was the first psychologist who tried to patterns and forms), (iv) Perceptual Speed formalise the concept of intelligence in (speed in perceiving details), (v) Word terms of mental operations. Prior to him, Fluency (using words fluently and flexibly), we find the notion of intelligence described (vi) Memory (accuracy in recalling in general ways in various philosophical information), and (vii) Inductive Reasoning treatises available in different cultural (deriving general rules from presented traditions. Binet’s theory of intelligence facts). was rather simple as it arose from his Arthur Jensen proposed a hierarchical interest in differentiating more intelligent model of intelligence consisting of abilities from less intelligent individuals. He, operating at two levels, called Level I and therefore, conceptualised intelligence as Level II. Level I is the associative learning consisting of one similar set of abilities in which output is more or less similar to which can be used for solving any or every the input (e.g., rote learning and memory). problem in an individual’s environment. Level II, called cognitive competence, His theory of intelligence is called Uni or involves higher-order skills as they one factor theory of intelligence. This transform the input to produce an effective theory came to be disputed when output. eg. - 'Understanding' any topic / concept in depth. psychologists started analysing data J.P. Guilford proposed the structure- of individuals, which was collected using of-intellect model which classifies Binet’s test. intellectual traits among three dimensions: In 1927, Charles Spearman proposed a operations, contents, and products. two-factor theory of intelligence Operations are what the respondent does. employing a statistical method called factor These include cognition, memory etc. analysis. He showed that intelligence recording, memory retention, divergent consisted of a general factor (g-factor) and production, convergent production, and some specific factors (s-factors). The evaluation. Contents refer to the nature of g-factor includes mental operations which materials or infor mation on which are primary and common to all intellectual operations are performed. performances. In addition to the g-factor, These include visual, auditory, symbolic etc. he said that there are also many specific (e.g., letters, numbers), semantic (e.g., S factor - specialized ability needed in abilities. These are contained in what he words) and behavioural (e.g., information particular kinds of cognitive tasks/ called the s-factor. Excellent singers, about people’s behaviour, attitudes, needs, performances. architects, scientists, and athletes may be etc.). Products refer to the form in which high on g-factor, but in addition to this, information is processed by the respondent. they have specific abilities which allow Products are classified into units, classes, etc. them to excel in their respective domains. relations, systems, transformations, and Spearman’s theory was followed by Louis implications. Since this classification Thurstone’s theory. He proposed the (Guilford, 1988) includes 6´5´6 categories, theory of primary mental abilities. It therefore, the model has 180 cells. Each cell states that intelligence consists of seven is expected to have at least one factor or primary abilities, each of which is relatively ability; some cells may have more than 6 Psychology Rationalised 2023-24 one factor. Each factor is described in Pilots, sailors, sculptors, painters, terms of all three dimensions. architects, interior decorators, and The above mentioned theories are surgeons are likely to have highly representations of psychometric approach developed spatial intelligence. to understand intelligent behaviour. Musical (an ability to produce and manipulate musical rhythms and Theory of Multiple Intelligences patterns) : It is the capacity to produce, Howard Gardner proposed the theory of create and manipulate musical patterns. multiple intelligences. According to him, Persons high on this intelligence are very intelligence is not a single entity; rather sensitive to sounds and vibrations, and distinct types of intelligences exist. Each in creating new patterns of sounds. of these intelligences are independent of Bodily-Kinaesthetic (an ability to use each other. This means that, if a person whole or portions of the body flexibly and exhibits one type of intelligence, it does creatively) : This consists of the use of the not necessarily indicate being high or low whole body or portions of it for display on other types of intelligences. Gardner or construction of products and problem also put forth that different types of solving. Athletes, dancers, actors, intelligences interact and work together sportspersons, gymnasts, and surgeons to find a solution to a problem. Gardner are likely to have such kind of intelligence. studied extremely talented persons, who Interpersonal (an ability to had shown exceptional abilities in their understand to subtle aspects of others’ respective areas, and described eight behaviours) : This is the ability to types of intelligence. These are as follows: understand the motives, feelings and Linguistic (an ability to produce and behaviours of other people so as to bond use language) : It is the capacity to use into a comfortable relationship with language fluently and flexibly to express others. Psychologists, counsellors, one’s thinking and understand others. politicians, social workers, and religious Persons high on this intelligence are leaders are likely to possess high ‘word-smart’, i.e. they are sensitive to interpersonal intelligence. different shades of word meanings, are Intrapersonal (an ability to articulate, and can create linguistic understand of one’s own feelings, images in their mind. Poets and writers motives, and desires): This refers to the are very strong in this component of knowledge of one’s internal strengths and intelligence. limitations and using that knowledge to Logical-Mathematical (an ability to effectively relate to others. Persons high think logically and critically, and solve on this ability have finer sensibilities problems) : Persons high on this type of regarding their identity, human intelligence can think logically and existence, and meaning of life. critically. They engage in abstract Philosophers and spiritual leaders present reasoning, and can manipulate symbols examples of this type of intelligence. to solve mathematical problems. Scientists Naturalistic (an ability to identify the and Nobel Prize winners are likely to be features of the natural world) : This strong in this component. involves complete awareness of our Spatial (an ability to form visual relationship with the natural world. It is images and patterns) : It refers to the useful in recognising the beauty of abilities involved in forming, using, and different species of flora and fauna, and transforming mental images. The person making subtle discriminations in the high on this intelligence can easily natural world. Hunters, farmers, tourists, represent the spatial world in the mind. 7 Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes Rationalised 2023-24 botanists, zoologists, and bird watchers Experiential Intelligence: Experiential possess more of naturalistic intelligence. or creative intelligence is involved in using past experiences creatively to solve Triarchic Theory of Intelligence novel problems. It is reflected in creative Robert Sternberg (1985) proposed the performance. Persons high on this aspect triarchic theory of intelligence. Sternberg integrate different experiences in an views intelligence as “the ability to adapt, original way to make new discoveries and to shape and select environment to inventions. They quickly find out which accomplish one’s goals and those of one’s information is crucial in a given situation. society and culture”. According to this theory, there are three basic types of On the ‘Practical’ Track Activity intelligence: Componential, Experiential, 1.2 and Contextual. The elements of the You have just been admitted into a triarchic theory of intelligence are shown school/college. You will take three in Figure 1.1. examinations during the entire year. Componential Intelligence : Compo- You sincerely want to receive high marks in the course. How likely are you nential or analytical intelligence is the to engage in each of the following analysis of information to solve problems. actions? Rank the following courses of Persons high on this ability think action. Match your answer with that analytically and critically and succeed in of your classmates. schools. This intelligence has three Attend classes regularly. components, each serving a different Create study groups with your friends for weekly discussions. function. First is the knowledge acquisition Take detailed notes in the class. component, which is responsible for Join a tutorial/coaching centre. learning and acquisition of the ways of Prepare written notes for each doing things. The second is the meta or a chapter. higher order component, which involves Read the textbook chapters planning concerning what to do and how thoroughly. to do. The third is the performance Solve the questions of the last three years. component, which involves actually doing Talk to your teacher after the class. things. Fig.1.1 : Elements of Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 8 Psychology Rationalised 2023-24  Contextual Intelligence : Contextual you perceive the relations among various or practical intelligence involves the ability concepts and integrate them into a to deal with environmental demands meaningful pattern for comprehension. For encountered on a daily basis. It may be example, in Raven’s Progressive Matrices called ‘street smartness’ or ‘business sense’. (RPM) Test, a design is presented from Persons high on this aspect easily adapt to which a part has been removed. You are their present environment or select a more required to choose one of the six options favourable environment than the existing that best completes the design. one, or modify the environment to fit their Simultaneous processing helps you in needs. Therefore, they turn out to be grasping the meaning and relationship successful in life. between the given abstract figur es. Ster nberg’s triar chic theory of Successive processing takes place when intelligence represents the information- you remember all the information serially pr ocessing approach to understand so that the recall of one leads to the recall intelligence. of another. Learning of digits, alphabets, multiplication tables, etc. are examples of Planning, Attention-arousal, and successive processing. Simultaneous-successive (PASS) Model Planning : This is an essential feature of Intelligence of intelligence. After the information is attended to and processed, planning is This model has been developed by J.P. activated. It allows us to think of the Das, Jack Naglieri, and Kirby (1994). possible courses of action, implement them According to this model, intellectual to reach a target, and evaluate their activity involves the inter dependent effectiveness. If a plan does not work, it is functioning of three neurological systems, modified to suit the requirements of the called the functional units of brain. These task or situation. For example, to take the units are responsible for arousal/attention, test scheduled by your teacher, you would coding or processing, and planning have to set goals, plan a time schedule of respectively. study, get clarifications in case of problems Arousal - Awareness Arousal/Attention : State of arousal is and if you are not able to tackle the Attention - Focus basic to any behaviour as it helps us in chapters assigned for the test, you may attending to stimuli. Arousal and attention have to think of other ways (e.g., give more enable a person to process information. An time, study with a friend, etc.) to meet your optimal level of ar ousal focuses our goals. attention to the relevant aspects of a These PASS processes operate on a problem. Too much or too little arousal knowledge base developed either formally would inter fere with attention. For (by reading, writing, and experimenting) or instance, when you are told by your informally from the environment. These teacher about a test which s/he plans to processes are interactive and dynamic in hold, it would arouse you to attend to the nature; yet each has its own distinctive specific chapters. Arousal forces you to functions. Das and Naglieri have also focus your attention on reading, learning developed a battery of tests, known as the and revising the contents of the chapters. Cognitive Assessment System (CAS). It Simultaneous and Successive consists of verbal as well as non-verbal Processing : You can integrate the tasks that measure basic cognitive information into your knowledge system functions presumed to be independent of either simultaneously or successively. schooling. The battery of tests is meant for Simultaneous processing takes place when individuals between 5 and 18 years of age. 9 Chapter 1 Variations in Psychological Attributes Rationalised 2023-24  The results of assessment can be used intelligence while rich nutrition, good to remedy cognitive deficits of children family background, and quality schooling with learning problems. increases intelligence. There is a general This model represents the information- consensus among psychologists that processing approach to intelligence. intelligence is a product of complex