Methods of Research PDF

Methods of Research Prepared by: ELESAR V. MALICOBAN, LPT, MSciEd, MAS SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN Research Design Research designs are plans and the procedures for research that span the decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data col...

Methods of Research Prepared by: ELESAR V. MALICOBAN, LPT, MSciEd, MAS SELECTION OF RESEARCH DESIGN Research Design Research designs are plans and the procedures for research that span the decisions from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis. This plan involves several decisions. The overall decision involves which design should be used to study a topic. Informing this decision should include the following: worldview assumptions the researcher brings to the study; procedures of inquiry (called strategies); methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Research Design The selection of a research design is also based on the following: nature of the research problem or issue being addressed the researchers’ personal experiences the audiences for the study STRATEGIES OF INQUIRY Strategies of Inquiry The researcher not only selects a qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods study to conduct, the inquirer also decides on a type of study within these three choices. Strategies of inquiry are types of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods designs or models that provide specific direction for procedures in a research design. Others have called them approaches to inquiry or research methodologies. Strategies of Inquiry The strategies available to the researcher have grown over the years as computer technology has pushed forward our data analysis and ability to analyze complex models and as individuals have articulated new procedures for conducting social science research. Quantitative Strategies Quantitative Strategies During the late 19th and throughout the 20th century, strategies of inquiry associated with quantitative research were those that invoked the postpositivist worldview. These include true experiments and the less rigorous experiments called quasi-experiments and correlational studies and specific single-subject experiments. Quantitative Strategies More recently, quantitative strategies have involved complex experiments with many variables and treatments (e.g., factorial designs and repeated measure designs). They have also included elaborate structural equation models that incorporate causal paths and the identification of the collective strength of multiple variables. Quantitative Strategies Survey research provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or structured interviews for data collection, with the intent of generalizing from a sample to a population. Quantitative Strategies Experimental research seeks to determine if a specific treatment influences an outcome. This impact is assessed by providing a specific treatment to one group and withholding it from another and then determining how both groups scored on an outcome. Experiments include true experiments, with the random assignment of subjects to treatment conditions, and quasi-experiments that use nonrandomized designs. Included within quasi-experiments are single-subject designs. Qualitative Strategies Qualitative Strategies In qualitative research, the numbers and types of approaches have also become more clearly visible during the 1990s and into the 21st century. Qualitative Strategies Ethnography is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies an intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time by collecting, primarily, observational and interview data. The research process is flexible and typically evolves contextually in response to the lived realities encountered in the field setting. Qualitative Strategies Grounded theory is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants. This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information. Two primary characteristics of this design are the constant comparison of data with emerging categories and theoretical sampling of different groups to maximize the similarities and the differences of information. Qualitative Strategies Case studies are a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher explores in depth a program, event, activity, process, or one or more individuals. Cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period of time. Qualitative Strategies Phenomenological research is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher identifies the essence of human experiences about a phenomenon as described by participants. Understanding the lived experiences marks phenomenology as a philosophy as well as a method, and the procedure involves studying a small number of subjects through extensive and prolonged engagement to develop patterns and relationships of meaning. In this process, the researcher brackets or sets aside his or her own experiences in order to understand those of the participants in the study. Qualitative Strategies Narrative research is a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their lives. This information is then often retold or restoried by the researcher into a narrative chronology. In the end, the narrative combines views from the participant’s life with those of the researcher’s life in a collaborative narrative. Mixed Method Strategies Mixed Method Strategies Mixed methods strategies are less well known than either the quantitative or qualitative approaches. The concept of mixing different methods originated in 1959 when multimethods were used to study validity of psychological traits. This encouraged others to employ their multimethod matrix to examine multiple approaches to data collection. This prompted others to mix methods, and soon approaches associated with field methods, such as observations and interviews. Mixed Method Strategies Sequential mixed methods are those in which the researcher seeks to elaborate on or expand on the findings of one method with another method. This may involve beginning with a qualitative interview for exploratory purposes and following up with a quantitative, survey method with a large sample so that the researcher can generalize results to a population. Alternatively, the study may begin with a quantitative method in which a theory or concept is tested, followed by a qualitative method involving detailed exploration with a few cases or individuals. Mixed Method Strategies Concurrent mixed methods are those in which the researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide a comprehensive analysis of the research problem. In this design, the investigator collects both forms of data at the same time and then integrates the information in the interpretation of the overall results. Also, in this design, the researcher may embed one smaller form of data within another larger data collection in order to analyze different types of questions (the qualitative addresses the process while the quantitative, the outcomes). Mixed Method Strategies Transformative mixed methods are those in which the researcher uses a theoretical lens as an overarching perspective within a design that contains both quantitative and qualitative data. This lens provides a framework for topics of interest, methods for collecting data, and outcomes or changes anticipated by the study. Within this lens could be a data collection method that involves a sequential or a concurrent approach. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING A RESEARCH DESIGN Research Problem A research problem is an issue or concern that needs to be addressed (e.g., the issue of racial discrimination). Certain types of social research problems call for specific approaches. For example, if the problem calls for (a) the identification of factors that influence an outcome, (b) the utility of an intervention, or (c) understanding the best predictors of outcomes, then a quantitative approach is best. It is also the best approach to use to test a theory or explanation. Research Problem On the other hand, if a concept or phenomenon needs to be understood because little research has been done on it, then it merits a qualitative approach. Qualitative research is exploratory and is useful when the researcher does not know the important variables to examine. This type of approach may be needed because the topic is new, the topic has never been addressed with a certain sample or group of people, and existing theories do not apply with the particular sample or group under study. Research Problem A mixed methods design is useful when either the quantitative or qualitative approach by itself is inadequate to best understand a research problem or the strengths of both quantitative and qualitative research can provide the best understanding. Personal Experiences Researchers’ own personal training and experiences also influence their choice of approach. An individual trained in technical, scientific writing, statistics, and computer statistical programs and familiar with quantitative journals in the library would most likely choose the quantitative design. Personal Experiences On the other hand, individuals who enjoy writing in a literary way or conducting personal interviews or making up- close observations may gravitate to the qualitative approach. The mixed methods researcher is an individual familiar with both quantitative and qualitative research. This person also has the time and resources to collect both quantitative and qualitative data and has outlets for mixed methods studies, which tend to be large in scope. Audience Researchers write for audiences that will accept their research. These audiences may be journal editors, journal readers, graduate committees, conference attendees, or colleagues in the field. The experiences of these audiences with quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods studies can shape the decision made about this choice. QUANTITATIVE METHODS Surveys and Experiments A survey design provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population. From sample results, the researcher generalizes or makes claims about the population. In an experiment, investigators may also identify a sample and generalize to a population; Surveys and Experiments however, the basic intent of an experimental design is to test the impact of a treatment (or an intervention) on an outcome, controlling for all other factors that might influence that outcome. As one form of control, researchers randomly assign individuals to groups. When one group receives a treatment and the other group does not, the experimenter can isolate whether it is the treatment and not other factors that influence the outcome. Survey Design Survey Design Identify the purpose of survey research. This purpose is to generalize from a sample to a population so that inferences can be made about some characteristic, attitude, or behavior of this population. Survey Design Indicate why a survey is the preferred type of data collection procedure for the study. In this rationale, consider the advantages of survey designs, such as the economy of the design and the rapid turnaround in data collection. Discuss the advantage of identifying attributes of a large population from a small group of individuals. Survey Design Indicate whether the survey will be cross-sectional, with the data collected at one point in time, or whether it will be longitudinal, with data collected over time. Survey Design Specify the form of data collection. The four types can be: self-administered questionnaires; interviews; structured record reviews to collect financial, medical, or school information; and structured observations. Experimental Design Participants Describe the selection process for participants as either random or nonrandom (e.g., conveniently selected). The participants might be selected by random selection or random sampling. With random selection or random sampling, each individual has an equal probability of being selected from the population, ensuring that the sample will be representative of the population. Participants In many experiments, however, only a convenience sample is possible because the investigator must use naturally formed groups (e.g., a classroom, an organization, a family unit) or volunteers. When individuals are not randomly assigned, the procedure is called a quasi-experiment. Participants When individuals can be randomly assigned to groups, the procedure is called a true experiment. If random assignment is made, discuss how the project will randomly assign individuals to the treatment groups. This means that of the pool of participants, Individual 1 goes to Group 1, Individual 2 to Group 2, and so forth, so that there is no systematic bias in assigning the individuals. Participants This procedure eliminates the possibility of systematic differences among characteristics of the participants that could affect the outcomes, so that any differences in outcomes can be attributed to the experimental treatment. Participants Identify other features in the experimental design that will systematically control the variables that might influence the outcome. One approach is matching participants in terms of a certain trait or characteristic and then assigning one individual from each matched set to each group. Participants For example, scores on a pretest might be obtained. Individuals might then be assigned to groups, with each group having the same numbers of high, medium, and low scorers on the pretest. Alternatively, the criteria for matching might be ability levels or demographic variables. Variables Clearly identify the independent variables in the experiment. One independent variable must be the treatment variable. One or more groups receive the experimental manipulation, or treatment, from the researcher. Variables Other independent variables may simply be measured variables in which no manipulation occurs (e.g., attitudes or personal characteristics of participants). Still other independent variables can be statistically controlled, such as demographics (e.g., gender or age). Variables Identify the dependent variable or variables (i.e., the outcomes) in the experiment. The dependent variable is the response or the criterion variable that is presumed to be caused by or influenced by the independent treatment conditions and any other independent variables). QUALITATIVE PROCEDURES Qualitative Procedures Qualitative procedures demonstrate a different approach to scholarly inquiry than methods of quantitative research. Qualitative inquiry employs different philosophical assumptions; strategies of inquiry; and methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Although the processes are similar, qualitative procedures rely on text and image data, have unique steps in data analysis, and draw on diverse strategies of inquiry. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Natural setting—Qualitative researchers tend to collect data in the field at the site where participants experience the issue or problem under study. They do not bring individuals into a lab (a contrived situation), nor do they typically send out instruments for individuals to complete. This up-close information gathered by actually talking directly to people and seeing them behave and act within their context is a major characteristic of qualitative research. In the natural setting, the researchers have face-to-face interaction over time. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Researcher as key instrument—Qualitative researchers collect data themselves through examining documents, observing behavior, or interviewing participants. They may use a protocol—an instrument for collecting data— but the researchers are the ones who actually gather the information. They do not tend to use or rely on questionnaires or instruments developed by other researchers. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Multiple sources of data—Qualitative researchers typically gather multiple forms of data, such as interviews, observations, and documents, rather than rely on a single data source. Then the researchers review all of the data, make sense of it, and organize it into categories or themes that cut across all of the data sources. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Inductive data analysis—Qualitative researchers build their patterns, categories, and themes from the bottom up, by organizing the data into increasingly more abstract units of information. This inductive process illustrates working back and forth between the themes and the database until the researchers have established a comprehensive set of themes. It may also involve collaborating with the participants interactively, so that participants have a chance to shape the themes or abstractions that emerge from the process. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Participants’ meanings—In the entire qualitative research process, the researcher keeps a focus on learning the meaning that the participants hold about the problem or issue, not the meaning that the researchers bring to the research or writers express in the literature. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Emergent design—The research process for qualitative researchers is emergent. This means that the initial plan for research cannot be tightly prescribed, and all phases of the process may change or shift after the researcher enters the field and begins to collect data. For example, the questions may change, the forms of data collection may shift, and the individuals studied and the sites visited may be modified. The key idea behind qualitative research is to learn about the problem or issue from participants and to address the research to obtain that information. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Theoretical lens—Qualitative researchers often use lens to view their studies, such as the concept of culture, central to ethnography, or gendered, racial, or class differences from the theoretical orientations. Sometimes the study may be organized around identifying the social, political, or historical context of the problem under study. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Interpretive—Qualitative research is a form of interpretive inquiry in which researchers make an interpretation of what they see, hear, and understand. Their interpretations cannot be separated from their own backgrounds, history, contexts, and prior understandings. After a research report is issued, the readers make an interpretation as well as the participants, offering yet other interpretations of the study. With the readers, the participants, and the researchers all making interpretations, it is apparent how multiple views of the problem can emerge. Characteristics of Qualitative Research Holistic account—Qualitative researchers try to develop a complex picture of the problem or issue under study. This involves reporting multiple perspectives, identifying the many factors involved in a situation, and generally sketching the larger picture that emerges. A visual model of many facets of a process or a central phenomenon aid in establishing this holistic picture. LITERATURE REVIEW The Research Topic Before considering what literature to use in a project, first identify a topic to study and reflect on whether it is practical and useful to undertake the study. The topic is the subject or subject matter of a proposed study, such as “faculty teaching,” “organizational creativity,” or “psychological stress.” Describe the topic in a few words or in a short phrase. The topic becomes the central idea to learn about or to explore. The Research Topic There are several ways that researchers gain some insight into their topics when they are initially planning their research. One way is to draft a brief title to the study. The working or draft title becomes a major road sign in research — a tangible idea that the researcher can keep refocusing on and changing as the project goes on. The Research Topic A common shortcoming of beginning researchers is that they frame their study in complex and erudite language. This perspective may result from reading published articles that have undergone numerous revisions before being set in print. Good, sound research projects begin with straightforward, uncomplicated thoughts, easy to read and to understand. The Research Topic Think about a journal article that you have read recently. If it was easy and quick to read, it was likely written in general language that many readers could easily identify with, in a way that was straightforward and simple in overall design and conceptualization. The Research Topic Another strategy for topic development is to pose the topic as a brief question. When drafting questions, focus on the key topic in the question as the major signpost for the study. Consider how this question might be expanded later to be more descriptive of your study. The Research Topic Actively elevating this topic to a research study calls for reflecting on whether the topic can and should be researched. A topic can be researched if researchers have participants willing to serve in the study. It also can be researched if investigators have resources to collect data over a sustained period of time and to analyze the information, such as available computer programs. The Research Topic A first step in any research project is to spend considerable time in the library examining the research on a topic. Beginning researchers may advance a great study that is complete in every way, such as in the clarity of research questions, the comprehensiveness of data collection, and the sophistication of statistical analysis. The Research Topic But the researcher may garner little support from faculty committees or conference planners because the study does not add anything new to the body of research. Ask, “How does this project contribute to the literature?” Consider how the study might address a topic that has yet to be examined, extend the discussion by incorporating new elements, or replicate (or repeat) a study in new situations or with new participants. The Research Topic The issue of should the topic be studied also relates to whether anyone outside of the researcher’s own immediate institution or area would be interested in the topic. Given a choice between a topic that might be of limited regional interest or one of national interest, It is good to opt for the latter because it would have wide appeal to a much broader audience. Journal editors, committee members, conference planners, and funding agencies all appreciate research that reaches a broad audience. The Research Topic Finally, the issue of should the topic be studied also relates to the researcher’s personal goals. Consider the time it takes to complete a project, revise it, and disseminate the results. All researchers should consider how the study and its heavy commitment of time will pay off in enhancing career goals, whether these goals relate to doing more research, obtaining a future position, or advancing toward a degree. The Literature Review Once the researcher identifies a topic that can and should be studied, the search can begin for related literature on the topic. The literature review accomplishes several purposes. It shares with the reader the results of other studies that are closely related to the one being undertaken. Suggestions for Using the Literature In a qualitative study, use the literature sparingly in the beginning in order to convey an inductive design, unless the design type requires a substantial literature orientation at the outset. Consider the most appropriate place for the literature in a qualitative study and base the decision on the audience for the project. Keep in mind the options: placing it at the beginning to frame the problem, placing it in a separate section, and using it at the end to compare and contrast with the findings. Suggestions for Using the Literature Use the literature in a quantitative study deductively, as a basis for advancing research questions or hypotheses. In a quantitative study plan, use the literature to introduce the study, describe related literature in a separate section, and to compare findings. If a separate review is used, consider whether the literature will be integrative summaries, theoretical reviews, or methodological reviews. A typical practice in dissertation writing is to advance an integrative review. Priority for Selecting Literature Material Especially if you are examining a topic for the first time and unaware of the research on it, start with broad syntheses of the literature, such as overviews found in encyclopedias. You might also look for summaries of the literature on your topic presented in journal articles or abstract series. Turn to journal articles in respected, national journals, especially those that report research studies. Priority for Selecting Literature Material Turn to books related to the topic. Begin with research monographs that summarize the scholarly literature. Then consider entire books on a single topic by a single author or group of authors or books that contain chapters written by different authors. Priority for Selecting Literature Material Look for major national conferences and the papers delivered at them. Often, conference papers report the latest research developments. Most major conferences either require or request that authors submit their papers for inclusion in computerized indices. Make contact with authors of pertinent studies. Seek them out at conferences. Write or phone them, asking if they know of studies related to your area of interest and inquire also if they have an instrument that might be used or modified for use in your study. Priority for Selecting Literature Material The Web also provides helpful materials for a literature review. The easy access and ability to capture entire articles makes this source of material attractive. However, screen these articles carefully for quality and be cautious about whether they represent rigorous, thoughtful, and systematic research suitable for use in a literature review. Priority for Selecting Literature Material Online journals, on the other hand, often include articles that have undergone rigorous reviews by editorial boards. You might check to see if the journal has a refereed editorial board that reviews manuscripts and has published standards for accepting manuscripts in an editorial statement.