Chapter Seven: Learning

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Chapter Seven: Learning OVERVIEW ▪ Basic Concepts and Classical Conditioning ▪ Operant Conditioning ▪ Biological Constraints on Conditioning Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Basic Learning Concepts and Classical Conditioning ▪ What is learni...

Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Chapter Seven: Learning OVERVIEW ▪ Basic Concepts and Classical Conditioning ▪ Operant Conditioning ▪ Biological Constraints on Conditioning Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Basic Learning Concepts and Classical Conditioning ▪ What is learning? ▪ Process of acquiring through experience new information or behaviors ▪ How do we learn? ▪ Through association: Certain events occur together (Classical conditioning); Stimuli that are not control are associated and response is automatic (respondent behavior) ▪ Through consequences: Association between a response and consequences is learned (Operant conditioning) ▪ Through acquisition of mental information that guides behavior: Cognitive learning Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Classical Conditioning ▪ Watson ▪ Influenced by Pavlov ▪ Theoretical goal of science of psychology is prediction and control of behavior ▪ Behaviorism ▪ Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. ▪ Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Classical Conditioning ▪ Pavlov ▪ Studied digestive system; first Russian Nobel Prize (1904) ▪ Demonstrated associative learning via salivary conditioning Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Basic ▪ Classical conditioning: Type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events ▪ Neutral stimulus (NS): In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning ▪ Unconditioned response (UR): In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth) ▪ Unconditioned stimulus (US): in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR) Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Classical Conditioning ▪ Acquisition ▪ Initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response ▪ Extinction ▪ Diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS) ▪ Spontaneous recovery ▪ Reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Idealized Curve of Acquisition, Extinction, and Recovery Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Classical Conditioning ▪ Generalization ▪ Tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli like the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses ▪ Discrimination ▪ Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus (which predicts the US) and other irrelevant stimuli Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Applications of Classical Conditioning ▪ Pavlov’s principles are used to influence human health and well-being ▪ Areas of consciousness, motivation, emotion, health, psychological disorders, therapy ▪ Addicts counseled to avoid stimuli that may trigger cravings ▪ Pairing particular taste with drug that influences immune responses may eventually lead to response from taste alone. Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Applications of Classical Conditioning ▪ Pavlov’s work provided a basis for Watson’s ideas that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly conditioned responses. ▪ Watson applied classical conditioning principles in his studies of “Little Albert” to demonstrate how specific fears might be conditioned. Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Operant Conditioning Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Operant Conditioning Behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli. Organisms associate their own actions with consequences. Actions followed by reinforcement increase; those followed by punishments often decrease. Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Skinner and Skinner’s Experiments ▪ Skinner ▪ Expanded on Thorndike’s law of effect A Skinner box Inside the box, the rat presses a bar for a food reward. Outside, a measuring device (not shown above) records the animal’s accumulated responses. ▪ Developed behavioral technology and principles of behavior control ▪ Designed and used the Skinner box for experiments and recorded responses Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Operant Conditioning ▪ Everyday behaviors are continually reinforced and shaped. ▪ Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens a preceding response ▪ Shaping: Gradually guiding toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcers Positive reinforcement Increases behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers Positive reinforcer Is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response Negative reinforcement Increases behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli Is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Operant Conditioning: Types of Reinforcers ▪ Primary: Is unlearned; innately reinforcing stimuli ▪ Conditioned (secondary): Gains power through association with primary reinforcer ▪ Immediate: Occurs immediately after a behavior ▪ Delayed: Involves time delay between desired response of and delivery of reward Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Schedules of Reinforcement 2/1 Fixed Variable Ratio Every so many: reinforcement after every nth behavior, such as buy 10 coffees, get 1 free, or pay workers per product unit produced After an unpredictable number: reinforcement after a random number of behaviors, as when playing slot machines or fly fishing Interval Every so often: reinforcement for behavior after a fixed time, such as Tuesday discount prices Unpredictably often: reinforcement for behavior after a random amount of time, as when checking for a Facebook response Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Operant Conditioning ▪ Punishment administers an undesirable consequence or withdraws something desirable in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child’s disobedience). ▪ Positive punishment ▪ Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future ▪ Negative punishment ▪ Removing a desired stimulus after particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in reducing behavior in future Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Four Major Drawbacks of Physical Punishment Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents’ punishing behavior. Punishment teaches discrimination among situations. Punishment can teach fear. Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems. Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Skinner’s Legacy: Applications of Operant Conditioning ▪ At school: Computer and adaptive learning software used in teaching and learning ▪ In sports: Behavioral methods implemented in shaping behavior in athletic performance ▪ At work: Rewards successfully used to increase productivity ▪ At home: Basic rules of shaping used in parenting Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Reinforcing Desired Behavior and Extinguishing Undesired Ones State a realistic goal in measurable terms. Decide how, when, and where you will work toward your goal. Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior. Reduce the rewards gradually. Reinforce the desired behavior. Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Basic idea Organism associates events. Organism associates behavior and resulting events. Response Involuntary, automatic. Voluntary, operates on environment. Acquisition Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS. Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher). Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone. Responding decreases when reinforcement stops. Spontaneous recovery The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR. The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response. Generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS. Organism’s response to similar stimuli is also reinforced. Discrimination The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US. Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced. Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Biopsychosocial Influences on Learning Psychological influences: • Previous experiences • Predictability of associations • Generalizations • Discrimination Biological influences: Social-cultural influences: • Genetic predispositions • Unconditioned responses • Adaptive responses • Culturally-learned preferences • Motivation, affected by presence of others Learning Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Biological Constraints on Conditioning ▪ Limits on operant conditioning ▪ Nature limits species’ capacity for operant conditioning ▪ Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive ▪ Instinctive drift occurs as animals revert to biologically predisposed patterns. Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Learning by Observation ▪ Observational learning ▪ Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others ▪ Bandura Albert ▪ Pioneer researcher of observational learning ▪ Modeling ▪ Bobo doll experiment ▪ Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images The Famous Bobo Doll Experiment Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain ▪ Mirror neurons ▪ Include frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so ▪ Brain’s mirroring of another’s action ▪ May enable imitation and empathy Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Applications of Observational Learning ▪ Prosocial effects ▪ Behavior modeling enhances learning of communication, sales, and customer service skills in new employees ▪ Modeling nonviolent behavior prompts similar behavior in others ▪ Across seven countries, viewing prosocial media increased later helping behavior ▪ Socially responsive toddlers tend to have strong internalized conscience as preschoolers Macduff Everton/The Image Bank/Getty Images Applications of Observational Learning ▪ Antisocial effects ▪ Abusive parents may have aggressive children ▪ Watching TV and videos may teach children ▪ Bullying is effective tool for controlling others ▪ Men should be tough; women should be gentle ▪ Violence-viewing effect