Skeletal System: Bones and Joints PDF

Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 6 Skeletal System: Bones and Joints Lecture Outline Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Eleventh Edition Cinnamon VanPutte Jennifer Regan Andrew Russo Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No repr...

Because learning changes everything. ® Chapter 6 Skeletal System: Bones and Joints Lecture Outline Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY Eleventh Edition Cinnamon VanPutte Jennifer Regan Andrew Russo Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. Components of Skeletal System Bones Cartilages Tendons Ligaments Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 2 Functions of the Skeletal System 1. Body support 2. Organ protect 3. Body movement 4. Mineral storage 5. Blood cell production Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 3 Bone Histology 1 Bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments of the skeletal system are all connective tissues. Their characteristics are largely determined by the composition of their extracellular matrix. The matrix always contains collagen, ground substance, and other organic molecules, as well as water and minerals. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 4 Bone Histology 2 Collagen is a fibrous protein that provides flexibility but resists pulling or compression. Matrix ground substance contains proteoglycans which are water trapping proteins that help cartilage to be smooth and resilient. The extracellular matrix of tendons and ligaments contains large amounts of collagen fibers, making these structures very tough, like ropes or cables. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 5 Bone Matrix 1 Bone matrix is about 35% organic and 65% inorganic material by weight. The organic material is primarily collagen and proteoglycans. The inorganic material is primarily a calcium phosphate crystal called hydroxyapatite Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 6 Bone Matrix 2 Collagen fibers lend flexible strength to the bone. The mineral component gives bone compression (weight- bearing) strength. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 7 Bone Cells 1 Osteoblasts are responsible for the formation of bone and the repair and remodeling of bone. Osteoblasts produce collagen and proteoglycans. Osteoblasts also secrete high concentrations of Ca2+ and phosphate ions, forming crystals called hydroxyapatite. The formation of new bone by osteoblasts is called ossification. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 8 Bone Cells 2 Osteocytes are cells that maintain bone matrix and form from osteoblast after bone matrix has surrounded it. Osteocytes account for 90–95% of bone cells and are very long-lived. Osteocyte cell bodies are housed within the bone matrix in spaces called lacunae. Their cell extensions are housed in narrow, long spaces called canaliculi. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 9 Bone Cells 3 Osteoclasts are bone-destroying cells. They contribute to bone repair and remodeling by removing existing bone, called bone reabsorption. Bone breakdown is important for mobilizing crucial Ca2+. As bone is broken down, the Ca2+ goes into the blood. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 10 Bone Cells 4 Biophoto Associates/Science Source Figure 6.1 a and b Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 11 Spongy and Compact Bone 1 Mature bone is called lamellar bone. It is organized into thin, concentric sheets or layers, called lamellae. Bone can be classified according to the amount of bone matrix relative to the amount of space within the bone. Spongy bone has less bone matrix and more space than compact bone, which has more bone matrix and less space. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 12 Spongy Bone 1 Spongy bone consists of interconnecting rods or plates of bone called trabeculae. Between the trabeculae are spaces, which in life are filled with bone marrow and blood vessels. The surfaces of trabeculae are covered with a single layer of cells consisting of osteoblasts with a few osteoclasts. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 13 Spongy Bone 2 Figure 6.2 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 14 Compact Bone 1 Compact bone, or cortical bone, is the solid, outer layer surrounding each bone. The functional unit of compact bone is an osteon. It is composed of concentric rings of matrix surrounding a central canal. Central canals are lined with endosteum and contain blood vessels, nerves, and loose connective tissue. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 15 Compact Bone 2 Lamellae are concentric rings of bone matrix which surround the central canal. Osteocytes are located in spaces called lacunae between the lamellar rings. Small tunnels called canaliculi radiate between lacunae across the lamellae. Canaliculi connect osteocytes to one another, transport nutrients and remove waste. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 16 Compact Bone 3 (a) ©Trent Stephens; (b) Biophoto Associates/Science Source Figure 6.1 a and b Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 17 Structure of a Long Bone 1 The diaphysis is the center portion of the bone which is composed of compact bone surrounding a hollow center called the medullary cavity. Some spongy bone tissue lines the medullary cavity. The ends of a long bone are called epiphyses They contain mostly spongy bone, with an outer layer of compact bone. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 18 Structure of a Long Bone 2 Within joints, the end of a long bone is covered with hyaline cartilage called articular cartilage. The epiphyseal plate is located between the epiphysis and the diaphysis. Growth in bone length occurs at the epiphyseal plate. When bone stops growing in length, the epiphyseal plate becomes ossified and is called the epiphyseal line. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 19 Bone Marrow 1 Cavities in spongy bone and the medullary cavity in the diaphysis are filled with soft tissue called marrow. Red marrow is the location of blood forming cells. Yellow marrow is mostly fat. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 20 Bone Marrow 2 In the fetus, the spaces within bones are filled with red marrow. Just before birth the red bone marrow starts to get converted to yellow marrow. This continues well into adulthood. In adults, most red bone marrow is in the flat bones. The long bones of the femur and humerus contain yellow marrow. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 21 Structure of Long Bone (a) ©Trent Stephens Figure 6.4 a and b Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 22 Periosteum and Endosteum 1 The outer surface of a bone is covered by a connective tissue membrane called periosteum. The outer layer of periosteum contains blood vessels and nerves. The inner layer is a single layer of bone cells, including osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Where tendons and ligaments attach to bone, fibers of the tendon or ligament become continuous with those of the periosteum. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 23 Periosteum and Endosteum 2 The endosteum is a single cell layer of connective tissue that lines the internal surfaces of all cavities within bones. The endosteum includes osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 24 Bone Formation Bone formation in the fetus follows two processes: Intramembranous ossification starts within embryonic connective tissue membranes. Endochondral ossification starts with a cartilage model. Both types of bone formation can result in compact or spongy bone. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 25 Intramembranous Ossification 1 Intramembranous ossification occurs when osteoblasts begin to produce bone within connective tissue. This occurs primarily in the bones of the skull. Osteoblasts line up on the surface of connective tissue fibers and begin depositing bone matrix to form trabeculae. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 26 Intramembranous Ossification 2 The process begins in areas called ossification centers and the trabeculae radiate out from the centers. Usually, two or more ossification centers exist in each flat skull bone and mature skull bones result from fusion of these centers as they enlarge. The trabeculae are constantly remodeled and they may enlarge or be replaced by compact bone. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 27 Steps in Intramembranous Ossification 1 1. Osteoblasts within the center of ossification produce bone matrix around collagen fibers of the connective tissue membrane. Once the osteoblasts are embedded in bone matrix, the osteoblasts become osteocytes. Many tiny trabeculae of woven bone develop. 2. Additional osteoblasts gather on the surfaces of the trabeculae and produce more bone. Trabeculae become larger and longer. Spongy bone forms as the trabeculae join together. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 28 Steps in Intramembranous Ossification 2 3. Cells within the spaces of the spongy bone specialize to form red bone marrow, and cells surrounding the developing bone specialize to form the periosteum. Osteoblasts from the periosteum lay down bone matrix to form an outer surface of compact bone. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 29 Intramembranous Ossification in the Fetus 1 (a) (top, bottom): ©Victor Eroschenko; (middle): Ed Reschke/Getty Images Figure 6.5 a Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 30 Intramembranous Ossification in the Fetus 2 (b) Biophoto Associates/Science Source Figure 6.5 b Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 31 Endochondral Ossification Endochondral bone formation is bone formation within a cartilage model. The cartilage model is replaced by bone. Initially formed is a primary ossification center, which forms bone in the diaphysis of a long bone. A secondary ossification center forms bone in the epiphysis. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 32 Steps in Endochondral Ossification 1. Chondroblasts build a cartilage model, the chondroblasts become chondrocytes. 2. Cartilage model calcifies (hardens). 3. Osteoblasts invade calcified cartilage and a primary ossification center forms in the diaphysis. 4. Secondary ossification centers form epiphysis. 5. Original cartilage model is almost completely ossified and remaining cartilage is articular cartilage. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 33 Endochondral Ossification of a Long Bone Figure 6.6 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 34 Bone Growth in Width Bone growth occurs by the deposition of new bone lamellae onto existing bone or other connective tissue. As osteoblasts deposit new bone matrix on the surface of bones between the periosteum and the existing bone matrix, the bone increases in width, or diameter. This process is called appositional growth. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 35 Bone Growth in Length 1 Growth in the length of a bone, which is the major source of increased height in an individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate. This type of bone growth occurs through endochondral ossification. Chondrocytes increase in number on the epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 36 Bone Growth in Length 2 Then the chondrocytes enlarge and die. The cartilage matrix becomes calcified. Much of the cartilage that forms around the enlarged cells is removed by osteoclasts, and the dying chondrocytes are replaced by osteoblasts. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 37 Bone Growth in Length 3 The osteoblasts start forming bone by depositing bone lamellae on the surface of the calcified cartilage. This process produces bone on the diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 38 Endochondral Bone Growth (a) Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images; (c) Biophoto Associates/Science Source Figure 6.7 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 39 Bone Remodeling Bone remodeling involves: removal of existing bone by osteoclasts and deposition of new bone by osteoblasts occurs in all bones responsible for changes in bone shape, bone repair, adjustment of bone to stress, and calcium ion regulation Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 40 Bone Repair 1 1. Broken bone causes bleeding and a hematoma forms. 2. A callus forms which is a bone cartilage network between and around the bone fragments. 3. Woven, spongy bone replaces the callus. 4. Compact bone replaces the spongy bone. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 41 Bone Repair 2 (a) ©Andrew F. Russo Figure 6.8 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 42 Bone and Calcium Homeostasis 1 Calcium is a critical nutrient involved in many physiological processes including: Stimulation and regulation of skeletal and cardiac muscle contraction Exocytosis of cellular molecules, including those important for neural signaling Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 43 Bone and Calcium Homeostasis 2 Bone is a major storage site for calcium. Movement of calcium in and out of bone helps determine blood levels of calcium. Calcium moves into bone as osteoblasts build new bone. Calcium moves out of bone as osteoclasts break down bone. Calcium homeostasis is maintained by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcitonin. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 44 Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) Secreted by the parathyroid gland Increases formation and activation of osteoclasts, the principal bone-reabsorbing cells Stimulates reabsorption of Ca2+ from urine in the kidney, reducing the amount of Ca2+ excreted in the urine. Indirectly increases Ca2+ uptake from the small intestine through the activation of calcitriol. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 45 Calcitonin Secreted from C cells in the thyroid gland when blood Ca2+ levels are too high Rapidly lowers blood Ca2+ levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 46 Calcium Homeostasis Figure 6.10 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 47 Skeletal Anatomy Overview 1 The average adult has 206 bones. Bones are segregated into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, the auditory ossicles, the hyoid bone, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 48 Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton Figure 6.11 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 49 Skeletal Anatomy Overview 2 The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the upper limbs, the lower limbs, and the two girdles. The term girdle, refers to the two zones where the limbs are attached to the body. These two zones are the pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 50 Bone Shapes 1 There are four bone shape classifications: long, short, flat, and irregular. Long bones are longer than they are wide; examples are upper and lower limb bones. Short bones are approximately as wide as they are long; examples are the bones of the wrist and ankle. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 51 Bone Shapes 2 Flat bones have a relatively thin, flattened shape; examples are bones of the skull and sternum. Irregular bones include the vertebrae and facial bones, which have shapes that do not fit readily into the other three categories. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 52 Skeletal Terminology 1 Foramen: hole Example - foramen magnum Fossa: depression Example - glenoid fossa Process: projection Example - mastoid process Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 53 Skeletal Terminology 2 Condyle: smooth, rounded end Example - occipital condyle Meatus or canal: canal-like passageway Example - external auditory meatus Tubercle or tuberosity: lump of bone Example - greater tubercle Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 54 Axial Skeleton 1 The axial skeleton is composed of the skull, the vertebral column, and the thoracic cage. The skull has 22 bones divided into those of the braincase and those of the face. The braincase, which encloses the cranial cavity, consists of 8 cranial bones that immediately surround and protect the brain. The bony structure of the face has 14 facial bones. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 55 Axial Skeleton 2 Thirteen of the facial bones are rather solidly connected to form the bulk of the face. The mandible, however, forms a freely movable joint with the rest of the skull. There are also three auditory ossicles in each middle ear (six total). Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 56 Cranial Sutures The cranial bones are connected by immovable joints called sutures There are four principal sutures: coronal sagittal lambdoid squamous Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 57 Cranial Bones 1 Frontal bone Anterior part of cranium, the ‘forehead” Parietal bones Sides and roof of cranium Occipital bones Posterior portion and floor of cranium Temporal bones Inferior to parietal bones on each side of the cranium Temporomandibular joint Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 58 Cranial Bones 2 Sphenoid bone Forms part of cranium floor, lateral posterior portions of eye orbits, lateral portions of cranium anterior to temporal bones Sella turcica Ethmoid bone Anterior portion of cranium, including medial surface of eye orbit and roof of nasal cavity Nasal conchae Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 59 Facial Bones 1 Maxillae Forms the upper jaw, anterior portion of hard palate, part of lateral walls of nasal cavity, floors of eye orbits Maxillary sinus Palatine bones Form posterior portion of hard palate, lateral wall of nasal cavity Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 60 Facial Bones 2 Zygomatic bones Cheek bones Also form floor and lateral wall of each eye orbit Lacrimal bones Medial surfaces of eye orbits Nasal bones Form bridge of nose Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 61 Facial Bones 3 Vomer In midline of nasal cavity Forms nasal septum with the ethmoid bone Inferior nasal conchae Attached to lateral walls of nasal cavity Mandible Lower jawbone Only movable skull bone Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 62 The Skull 1 Figure 6.12 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 63 The Skull 2 Figure 6.13 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 64 The Skull 3 (b) ©Eric Wise Figure 6.14 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 65 The Skull 4 (b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.16 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 66 The Skull 5 (b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.17 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 67 Paranasal Sinuses 1 Several of the bones associated with the nasal cavity have large cavities within them, called the paranasal sinuses which open into the nasal cavity. The paranasal sinuses are: Frontal Ethmoid Sphenoid Maxillary Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 68 Paranasal Sinuses 2 (c) Hemera Technologies/Getty Images; (d) Hemera Technologies/Getty Images Figure 6.15 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 69 Hyoid Bone 1 The hyoid bone is an unpaired, U-shaped bone that is not part of the skull and has no direct bony attachment to the skull or any other bones. The hyoid bone has the unique distinction of being the only bone in the body that does not articulate with another bone. The hyoid bone provides an attachment for some tongue muscles, and it is an attachment point for important neck muscles that elevate the larynx. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 70 Hyoid Bone 2 Figure 6.18 Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 71 Vertebral Column 1 The vertebral column, or spine, is the central axis of the skeleton, extending from the base of the skull to slightly past the end of the pelvis. In adults, it usually consists of 26 individual bones, grouped into five regions. The adult vertebral column has four major curvatures: cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacrococcygeal. The cervical region curves anteriorly. The thoracic region curves posteriorly. The lumbar region curves anteriorly The sacral and coccygeal regions together curve posteriorly Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 72 Vertebral Column 2 7 cervical vertebra 12 thoracic vertebra 5 lumbar vertebra 1 sacrum 1 coccyx Atlas: 1st vertebra holds head Axis: 2nd vertebra rotates head Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 73 Functions of Vertebral Column Supports body weight Protects the spinal cord Allows spinal nerves to exit the spinal cord Provides a site for muscle attachment Provides movement of the head and trunk Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 74 Vertebral Column 3 Figure 6.19 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 75 Vertebra Figure 6.20 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 76 Regional Differences in Vertebrae (a) (1) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.21 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 77 Sacrum (c) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.22 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 78 Thoracic Cage 1 Protects vital organs 12 pair of ribs Sternum: breastbone True ribs: attach directly to sternum by cartilage False ribs: attach indirectly to sternum by cartilage Floating ribs: not attached to sternum Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 79 Thoracic Cage 2 Figure 6.23 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 80 Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb Scapula: shoulder blade Clavicle: collar bone Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 81 Pectoral Girdle Figure 6.24 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 82 Scapula and Clavicle (d) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.25 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 83 Upper Limb Bones 1 Humerus: upper portion of forelimb Ulna: forearm Radius: forearm Carpals: wrist Metacarpals: Hand Phalanges: fingers Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 84 Upper Limb Bones 2 Figure 6.24 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 85 The Humerus (c) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.26 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 86 Ulna and Radius (b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.27 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 87 Bones of the Wrist and Hand Figure 6.28 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 88 Pelvic Girdle Where lower limbs attach to the body Pelvis: includes pelvic girdle and coccyx Ischium: inferior and posterior region of hip bone Ilium: most superior region of hip bone Acetabulum: hip socket (joint) of hip bone Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 89 Pelvis Figure 6.30 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 90 Hip Bones (The names of the three bones forming the hip bone are in bold.) (c) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.31 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 91 Comparison of the Male Pelvis to the Female Pelvis Figure 6.32 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 92 Lower Limb Bones 1 Femur: thigh Patella: knee cap Tibia: Larger bone of lower leg Fibula: Smaller bone lower leg Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 93 Lower Limb Bones 2 Tarsals: ankle Metatarsals: foot Phalanges: toes and fingers Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 94 Lower Limb Bones 3 Figure 6.29 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 95 Bones of the Thigh (b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.33 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 96 Bones of the Leg (b) Christine Eckel/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.34 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 97 Bones of the Foot Figure 6.35 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 98 Articulations Articulations (joints) are where two bones come together. Joints can be classified structurally as fibrous, cartilaginous, or synovial, according to the major connective tissue type that binds the bones together and whether a fluid-filled joint capsule is present. Joints are also be classified in functional categories according to their degree of motion as synarthroses, amphiarthroses, or diarthroses. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 99 Structural Classification of Joints Fibrous joint: united by fibrous connective tissue subclasses are sutures, syndesmosis, and gomphoses Cartilaginous: united by means of cartilage subclasses are synchondroses and symphysis Synovial: joined by a fluid cavity Most joints of the appendicular skeleton Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 100 Functional Classification of Joints Synarthrosis: non-movable joint Example – skull bone articulations Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable joint Example - between vertebrae Diarthrosis: freely movable joint Example - knee, elbow, and wrist articulations Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 101 Fontanels and Sutures Figure 6.36 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 102 Synovial Joint 1 Synovial joints are surrounded by fluid filled joint cavity. The cavity is created by the joint capsule and is full of synovial fluid. The joint capsule helps hold the bones together while still allowing for movement. The joint capsule consists of two layers: an outer fibrous capsule and an inner synovial membrane. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 103 Synovial Joint 2 The fibrous capsule is the outer layer of the joint capsule. It consists of dense irregular connective tissue and is continuous with the fibrous layer of the periosteum that covers the bones united at the joint. The synovial membrane is the inner layer of the joint capsule. It lines the joint cavity, produces synovial fluid, a viscous lubricating liquid. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 104 Structure of a Synovial Joint Figure 6.37 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 105 Types of Synovial Joints 1 TABLE 6.4 Synovial Joints Class and Example Bones Joined Movement of Joint Plane Intervertebral Between articular processes of Uniaxial; slight adjacent vertebrae Acromioclavicular Acromion process of scapula and Uniaxial; slight Carpometacarpal clavicle Uniaxial; slight Costovertebral Carpals and metacarpals 2–5 Uniaxial; slight Intercarpal Ribs and vertebrae Uniaxial; slight Intermetatarsal Between carpal bones Uniaxial; slight Intertarsal Between metatarsal bones Uniaxial; slight Sacroiliac Between tarsal bones Uniaxial; slight Plane Intervertebral Between sacrum and hip bone (complex joint with several planes and Tarsometatarsal synchondroses) Uniaxial; slight Tarsal bones and metatarsal bones Saddle Carpometacarpal pollicis Carpal and metacarpal of thumb Biaxial Sternoclavicular Manubrium of sternum and clavicle Multiaxial; slight Saddle Carpometacarpal Hinge Cubital (elbow) Humerus, ulna, and radius Uniaxial Knee Femur and tibia Uniaxial Interphalangeal Between phalanges Uniaxial Talocrural (ankle) Talus, tibia, and fibula Multiaxial; one predominates Hinge Cubital Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 106 Types of Synovial Joints 2 TABLE 6.4 Synovial Joints Class and Example Bones Joined Movement of Joint Pivot Atlantoaxial Atlas and axis Uniaxial rotation Proximal radioulnar Radius and ulna Uniaxial rotation Distal radioulnar Radius and ulna Uniaxial rotation Pivot Proximal radioulnar Ball-and-Socket Glenohumeral (shoulder) Scapula and humerus Multiaxial Hip Hip bone and femur Multiaxial Ball-and-socket Glenohumeral Ellipsoid Atlantooccipital Atlas and occipital bone Biaxial Metacarpophalangeal (knuckles) Metacarpal bones and phalanges Biaxial Metatarsophalangeal (ball of foot) Metatarsal bones and phalanges Biaxial Radiocarpal (wrist) Radius and carpal bones Multiaxial Ellipsoid Atlantooccipital Temporomandibular Mandible and temporal bone Multiaxial; one predominates Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 107 Types of Movement 1 Flexion: bending Extension: straightening Abduction: movement away from midline Adduction: movement toward the midline Pronation: rotation of the forearm with palms down Supination: rotation of the forearm with palms up Rotation: movement of a structure about the long axis Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 108 Types of Movement 2 (a, d–f) ©Eric Wise (b, c) Tamara Klein/McGraw-Hill Education Figure 6.39 Access the text alternative for slide images. Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 109 Effects of Aging on the Skeletal System and Joints 1. Decreased Collagen Production 2. Loss of Bone Density 3. Degenerative Changes Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC. 110  End of Main Content Because learning changes everything. ® www.mheducation.com Copyright 2022 © McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC.