Summary

This document provides an outline and overview of memory functions and related topics. It touches on memory processes like encoding, storage, and retrieval, as well as issues of memory and the brain.

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Chapter 8 - Memory Persistence of Memory The difference between false memories and true ones is the same as for jewels: it is always the false ones that look the most real, the most brilliant....

Chapter 8 - Memory Persistence of Memory The difference between false memories and true ones is the same as for jewels: it is always the false ones that look the most real, the most brilliant. Salvador Dali. 3 ¡ How Memory Functions ¡ Spatial Memory ¡ Problems with Memory ¡ Memory and the Brain ¡ Ways to Enhance Memory 4 1 ¡ How Memory Functions ¡ Spatial Memory ¡ Problems with Memory ¡ Memory and the Brain ¡ Ways to Enhance Memory 5 Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information. Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself. 6 2 If memory was nonexistent, everyone Guy Pearce plays a man without would be a stranger to memory in Memento you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger. Clive Wearing and his reality 8 ¡ Patient named S ¡ Conversations would send him into a jumble of recall of past memories ¡ S went on tour Alexander Luria Forgetting may be adaptive 9 3 An unique and highly emotional moment can give rise to clear, strong, and persistent memory called flashbulb memory. Though this memory is not free from errors. George W Bush being told of 9/11 attack. 10 ¡ Why are they such strong memories? § We tend to talk about them ¡ Are they as accurate as we remember? § Evidence that they deteriorate over time JF Kennedy assassination Space Shuttle Disasters OJ Simpson verdict 11 4 12 13 5 Effortful processing: Encoding of information through careful attention and conscious effort v Intentional and conscious attention, task-switching costs v Needed for learning new information, more effective 14 We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following: 1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. 2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. 3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you. 15 6 16 ¡ Memory best retained when organized into hierarchical format. 17 7 Types of Encoding 18 ¡ Semantic Encoding § Encoding of meaning § Including meaning of words § Semantic codes: cognitive representation of information or an event based on the meaning of the information 19 8 ¡ Visual Encoding § Encoding of picture images Visual codes: cognitive representations of information or an event based on the image 20 ¡ Acoustic Encoding § encoding of sound § especially sound of words Acoustic (phonological) codes: They did not say: “If cognitive representations of it doesn’t fit, you information or an event based on the must find the man sounds of words not guilty”? 21 9 Typewriter Void Cigarette Inherent Fire Process 22 XNBCPHDSATCBSX 26 10 X NBC PHD SAT CBS X 27 ¡ Memory best retained when organized into hierarchical format. 28 11 30 Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory and c) long- term memory. 31 12 Baddeley & Hitch Model 1. Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. 2. Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory. 32 Current work space Baddeley & Hitch Model Hard drive Desktop icons 33 13 A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. 34 ¡ What’s the “magic number” for working memory (Miller, 1956)? 7 digits (±2) ¡ Estimates range between 2 and 20. 35 14 Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal. CHJ 547 MKT 544 HIJ CH?? 541 547 … The duration of the working memory is about 20 sec. 36 ¡ Effects of rehearsal ¡ Memorizing nonsense words § DAX § BUP § LOD 37 15 ¡ The more time Time taken to relearn on taken to study on Day 1, the less time it took to Day 2 relearn on Day 2. Number of Repetitions Day 1 38 ¡ Ebbinghaus ¡ Information retained better when rehearsal is distributed § Semantic Effects of spaced and massed practice on music or Motor learning performance and memory. 39 16 Tend to remember the first and last items better than the ones in the middle. Short-term test. When the word list is tested immediately after learning it, the first words (primacy) and last words (recency) are best remembered 40 Short- vs Long- term test. Long-Term test e.g. 1 week later When the word list is tested later after learning it, only the first words (primacy effect) are most remembered 41 17 43 44 18 Sensory information (lights, smells, odours) leaves a trace on the nervous system for a split second, and then vanishes. Time to decide if information is important or extraneous (couple of seconds). 45 ¡ Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli ¡ “Are you listening to me?” 46 19 ¡ George Sperling § 3-4 items from set ¡ Visual sensory memory ¡ “Photographic memory” 47 R G T “Recall” F M Q RTMZ L Z S (44% recall) 50 ms (1/20 second) The exposure time for the stimulus is so small, that items cannot be rehearsed. 48 20 S X T Low Tone “Recall” J R S Medium Tone JRS P K Y High Tone (100% recall) 50 ms (1/20 second) Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought. 49 A D I Low Tone “Recall” Time N L V Delay Medium Tone N__ (33% recall) O G H High Tone 50 ms (1/20 second) 50 21 The longer the delay the greater the memory loss. Percent Recognized 80 60 40 20 0.15 0.30 0.50 1.00 Time (Seconds) 51 Duration of sensory memory differs for different senses. Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Tactile < 1 sec. long 52 22 53 ¡ Limited duration ¡ Limited capacity ¡ Better for random digits than letters § “Magic number” 54 23 55 Declarative 56 24 ¡ Episodic memory: Events we have personally experience § Typically reported as a narrative (hence declarative memory) § What, where, when types of events ¡ Semantic memory: Knowledge of words and concepts – Typically reported as a facts 57 Performance/ Behavioural 58 25 ¡ Procedural memory: Memory for how we do something § Skilled action (tying your shoes or riding a bike) ¡ Priming: exposure to a stimulus affects later behaviour – Word, pictures, sounds ¡ Conditioning (i.e. Classical condition): – Often unknowingly linked to other stimuli (e.g., images, sounds, smells) 59 ¡ Memory: a set of processes in the brain allowing us to access information ¡ Memory involves three basic activities: 1. Encoding: getting information into memory in the first place 2. Storage: retaining memories for future use 3. Retrieval: recapturing memories when you need them 60 26 62 ¡ The kind and amount of information in LTM is meaningless if we cannot retrieve it ¡ Kind of ‘search’ process where the memory is scanned for information – Retrieval cues: words, sights, or other stimuli that remind us of the information we need to retrieve from out memory 63 27 In recall the person must retrieve information using effort, e.g., a fill-in- the blank test requires recall. 1. The capital of France is ______. 64 ¡ Must retrieve information (non-cued). ¡ Examples: Fill-in-the-blank Names of students from high school 65 28 In recognition the person has to identify an item amongst others e.g., a multiple- choice test requires recognition. 1. Name the capital of France a. Brussels b. Rome c. London d. Paris 66 ¡ Identify items previously learned Examples: § MC exams § Recognize people with prompts 67 29 70 ¡ Measures amount of time saved when learning task a second time 71 30 In relearning the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material a second time. List List Original Relearning Jet Jet Trials Trials Dagger Dagger Saving X 100 Tree Tree Original 1 day later Kite Kite Trials … … Silk Silk 10 5 X 100 Frog Frog 10 Ring Ring It took 10 trials It took 5 trials 50% to learn this list to learn the list 72 Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. water smell Fire Truck hose fire smoke heat truck red 74 31 Parallel Distributed- processing theory: suggesting that information is represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks 75 To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you first need to activate one of the strands that lead to it, a process called priming. 76 32 ¡ Godden and Baddeley’s land and sea word list ¡ Word list ¡ Groups: § Water § Land ¡ Test recall water or land 81 Déja Vu means "I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. 82 33 Tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood. Emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues. 83 ¡ Mental or physical state may act as a retrieval cue § Alcohol (not all drugs) § Mood ¡ Mood congruence § Depression 84 34

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