Learning and Memory PDF

5 exams (100 points) (80%) (the fifth exam is the cumulative final on canvas lockdown browser) (paper) 4 quizzes Can do the canvas quizzes as many times No papers --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------...

5 exams (100 points) (80%) (the fifth exam is the cumulative final on canvas lockdown browser) (paper) 4 quizzes Can do the canvas quizzes as many times No papers ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1/8/25 Lecture 1: History of Learning Modern perspectives: behaviorism o named after a movement in psychology o focusing only on observable behavior ▪ only ever what you can empirically observe (what you can do and see) social learning cognitive learning Social learning theory breaks behaviorism o evolution of behaviorism cognitive psychology o unobservable mental activities ▪ Attention, decision making o information processing approach ▪ computer as a model Modal model of memory Atkinson-shiffrin model sensory memory --> short term memory (encoding retrieval) --> long term memory explicit memory: (hippocampal dependent) facts semantic episodic implicit memory: (basil ganglia dependent-group of brain cells at the base) lower levels of memory priming classical conditioning procedural learning: any sustained change in behavior or cognition as a result of experience (if it is temporary, it is not learned) Lecture 2: Elicited Behavior preexisting behavior: What we can learn o Depends on what we can already do o Behavior and cognition is not infinitely flexible Preexisting behavior and cognition o Constrains what we can and can’t learn Rachlin (1976) o Wood sculpture analogy o Have to work with wood already present reflex arc simplest form of elicited behavior present in all organisms o from salivation to jumping when scared has two main parts o eliciting stimulus o corresponding response two are linked o happen together and tend not to happen apart physiologically: 3 parts o affect sensory neuron  o interneuron o efferent effector/motor neuron reflexes o Keep us alive and are critical for life o Newborn infants ▪ Orienting the head ▪ Sucking ▪ Milk let down ▪ Respiratory occlusion modal action patterns some reflexes/group of reflexes o are only present in a single species/group of species modal action patterns o response patterns that are “species-typical” stimulus that causes the response o called sign or releasing stimulus o typically has one key feature ▪ size of egg ▪ color supernormal stimulus o sign stimulus with exaggerated features o increases strength of the modal action patterns o size of the egg/amount of red ▪ sugar and fat in food ▪ cosmetics and perfume ▪ plastic surgery/photoshop  behavioral organization (functional sequence/behavioral system) o any one behavior doesn't occur in isolation (anything you do does not happen alone) o behaviors ▪ functionally effective behavior sequences you do not do one thing to get something done appetitive vs. consummatory appetitive behavior: o early components of the sequence (early behaviors you do) o centered around finding and obtaining food/stimuli o variability (think food prep) consummatory behavior o end phase behaviors o consume --> consume food o relatively invariant (think chewing) appetitive behavior o modern learning theory breaks down further into: ▪ general search mode: don't know where food is not spatially localized ▪ focal search mode: know where food is spatially localized (narrowed down to one place) habituation and sensitization: reflexive behavior is not invariant o same sign/eliciting stimuli o not always the same response indefinitely readily modified by experience habituation: a progressive decrease in the vigor of elicited behavior (decline in response) occurs with repeated presentations of the stimulus decrease is stimulus-specific example:  o live by a train track, the first few times you wake up to the train ▪ you wake up less and less, and no longer wake up to the train (train is the stimulus) habituation and sensitization food: salivation reflex Epstein et al., 1992 o lemon/lime juice on tongue for 10 trials ▪ first taste is when salivation is the highest, then it continually goes down o switch to another flavor on trial 11 ▪ since it is a new stimulus, salivation goes back up o it is a sustained change that cannot be explained by fatigue or a loss of resources (not a loss of saliva) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1/13/24 habituation and sensitization habituation o also attention dependent o paying less attention will decrease habituation effect ▪ Epstein et al., 2005 taste when given a distracting task or not habituation o can “spontaneously recover” o returns after a period of time o startle response ▪ “jumping” when scared ▪ stabilimeter chamber pressure sensor on bottom Leaton, 1976 o loud, high pitched tone o switched frequency ▪ once a fay ▪ every 3 seconds ▪ once a day sensitization an increase in the vigor of elicited behavior (increase in response) occurs with repeated presentations related to arousal o situation when the individual is aroused o can occur with a separate strong stimulus preceding it Davis 1974 played a 110 decibel tone (like fireworks or firearms) with a 60 or 80 db background noise measured startle response in rats fear potentiated startled o a form of sensitization o fear readily elicit arousal o Bradley et al., 2005  ▪ told college students they would get an electric shock when they saw a pleasant/unpleasant picture ▪ measured eyeblink early part of the start response Bradley et al., 2005 o college students o told they would get electric shock ▪ when they saw a picture of a certain type ▪ unpleasant or pleasant o never gave shock o “fear” arousal match unpleasant startle Human infant visual attention Observe both sensitization and habituation (measuring how long they are looking at it) Occurs in a stimulus dependent manner Bahinski et al., 1985 o Put something in front of a baby (a checkerboard) o (baby looks at 4x4 less and less) o Complex stimulus ▪ Sensitization followed by habituation o Simple stimulus ▪ Habituation only ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1/15/25 Quiz on friday Dual Processing Theory habituation and sensitization o due to two different processes ▪ in two different neural structures o behavior is the combined output of these two systems ▪ both activated and work against each other ▪ net output: not all or none habituation process: o decreases responsiveness o in the S-R system (gets weaker) ▪ reflex arc sensitization process o increases responsiveness o in the “state system” (monitors your current state of affair) ▪ sensitive to arousal (due to stress, or a threat cue) ▪ occurs at a higher neural level opponent process theory emotions can be elicited as well opponent process theory o Solomon and Corbit 1974 o explains habituation to emotion  three observations: ▪ Biphasic response Primary reaction habituates Secondary reaction sensitizes ▪ marriage example: elated newlyweds → contented → widow(er) Homeostatic theory o Constant emotional environment o Primary reaction ▪ Due to A process o Secondary reaction ▪ Due to a B process ▪ Counteracts and brings system back to homeostasis ▪ Increases with repeated presentations Opponent process theory: Often been used in concert with drug addiction o Continual drug taking to counteract b process ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1/17/25 Classical conditioning foundations History of Classical Conditioning Discovered by accident Ivan Pavlov o Physiologist o Interested in digestive function o Collected saliva as first part of process A.T. Snarskii o Dry food, wet food, sour water, and sand S.G. Vul’fson o Sour water-colored black Noticed “psychic secretions” o Dogs would salivate at ▪ Sight of materials ▪ Events that typically preceded feeding o No direct physiological input ▪ Had to be due to something “mental” Pavlov o Didn't think of psychology as a science o Thought of himself as a highly methodical scientist o Adopted terms: ▪ Conditioned reflex ▪ Mental reflex ▪ Terms grounding in physiology o Created terminology ▪ Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unlearned ▪ Unconditioned response (UR) ▪ Conditioned stimulus (CS) Learned ▪ Conditioned response (CR) Response to cs Classical Conditioning Paradigm Key element  o Initial reflexive response o Unlearned/unconditioned ▪ Conditioning is synonymous with learning Initial reflexive response o Can be any reflex ▪ Has two parts Stimulus: environmental input that the body senses Response: actions taken as a result of the stimulus Initial reflexive response o Unconditioned stimulus (US): ▪ A stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior training o Unconditioned response (UR): ▪ A response that occurs to a stimulus without prior training o Unlearned/unconditioned ▪ Conditioning is synonymous with learning o Not always just motor ▪ Emotional responses occur as well Fear, excitement Mental/learned reflex o Second key element o Change in behavior as a result of experience ▪ Change in behavior What happens that didn't happen before o And remember: conditioned=learned Mental/learned reflex o Still like a reflex: 2 parts ▪ Conditioned stimulus (CS): Initially neutral stimulus that begins to elicit response due to being linked to US ▪ Conditioned response (CR): Response that begins to become elicited to the CS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1/22/25 Review: Dual process explains why you see sensitization or habituation If aroused when presented with stimulus, you undergo sensitization Habituation: when you respond less and less to the same stimuli presented Appetitive behavior: one that occurs early in sequence (finding and inquiring) Consummatory behavior: end-phase behavior, after a given stimulus (interact or consume stimulus) What drives the initial reaction in opponent process theory: the a process Classical conditioning paradigm Initial reflexive response o Unconditioned stimulus ▪ A stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior training o Unconditioned response ▪ Response that occurs to stimulus without prior training Mental/learned reflex o Still like a reflex: 2 parts ▪ Conditioned stimulus: Initially neutral stimulus (did not care or react before) that begins to elicit a response (start to react) due to being linked to the US ▪ Conditioned response: Response that begins to become elicited to the CS In theory… o CS could be anything ▪ Any stimulus that reliably precedes the US can become a CS o CR ▪ More invariant → end phase behavior ▪ Often the same behavior as the UR ▪ Often physiological or emotional reactions o Think behavioral systems ▪ What the cr eventually becomes often depends on cs If you see a threat that is a long ways away and cannot get to you for a bit, the best thing to do is stay still and be quiet Conditioning situations: Fear conditioning Eyeblink conditioning Sign tracking/AutoShaping (synonymous terms) o Approaching CS or US Fear Conditioning Most early research looked at emotional reactions o Little Albert o Animal research ▪ Watson took little Albert (a baby) and gave it a white rat ▪ Baby was the calmest baby at the daycare ▪ It pets the rat ▪ Rat is used as CS ▪ Every time the rat is presented, there is a loud sound ▪ Starts to cry when they see the rat Modern fear conditioning o Typically rodents o Measure freezing o Reger et al., 2012 ▪ 46 seconds CS (tone) ▪ Mild (.5 milliamp) shock ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1/24/25 Classical conditioning foundations Eyeblink conditioning Easy to accomplish Simplicity made it widely used Centered around eyeblink reflex Speakers that you play a tone to people, then a puff of air goes to the eye Ivkovich et al., 1999 o Infants playing on parents' lap o CS: 750 millisecond tone ▪ Paired and unpaired control Paired: tone and always air Unpaired: tone and nothing will happen o US: gentle air puff to eye o CR/UR: eyeblink AutoShaping/Sign tracking Autoshaping/sign tracking o CS: o Spatially defined cue ▪ Light, not a sound (something where it has one location) o Located away from US ▪ Creates an “unnatural situation” ▪ Studied in a long box Chamber Light on one end, food on other o US: ▪ Appetitive stimulus ▪ Usually food/drug/etc Burns and Domjan, 2000 flash light, then open the left box for the male to go to the female Soon, the pigeon will be hooked on the light AustoShaping/SIgn Tracking UR: o US dependent: eating, drug taking, etc. CR: o Approach behavior to CS o Even when it is far apart from the US ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 1/27/25 Excitatory vs. Inhibitory conditioning Two ways to look into future o What will happen --> excitatory o What will not happen --> inhibitory excitatory conditioning CS-US positive contingency (positive correlation) (if one happens, so does other) o if CS occurs --> the US will occur inhibitory conditioning (preventing something negative happening) CS-US negative contingency o If cs occurs --> the US will NOT occur o Learn to predict the absence of the US ▪ Example: kid getting bullied has learned that when they are around certain teachers, the bully won’t engage Teacher becomes CS Predicts no bullying ▪ Example: snow so no school Two ways to study: Multiple CS’s/Pavlovian conditioned inhibitor o Began with Pavlov o CS+ --> positive contingency with US (teacher no where to be seen, bully punches) o CS - --> negative contingency with US ▪ Wins out over CS+ Negative CS-US contingency o CS- is always separate from the US o US is less likely to occur after a CS rather than before it