Human Body Anatomy PDF

04/09/2023 Chapter 1 Anatomy The Human Body: An Orientation ▪ Anatomy...

04/09/2023 Chapter 1 Anatomy The Human Body: An Orientation ▪ Anatomy ▪ Study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts ▪ Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of parts © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 1 2 Anatomy Anatomy ▪ Gross anatomy ▪ Let’s look at an example of gross anatomy using ▪ Large structures the digestive system organs ▪ Easily observable © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 3 4 Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems. Oral cavity Anatomy Esophagus Stomach ▪ Microscopic anatomy Small intestine ▪ Structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye Large ▪ Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a intestine microscope Rectum (i) Digestive System Breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 5 6 1  04/09/2023 Figure 14.4c Anatomy of the stomach. Gastric pits Anatomy Surface ▪ Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy Gastric pit epithelium using a digestive system organ, the stomach Pyloric sphincter Mucous neck cells Gastric gland Parietal cells Gastric glands Chief cells (c) © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 7 8 Figure 14.4d Anatomy of the stomach. Physiology Pepsinogen Pepsin HCl ▪ Physiology ▪ Study of how the body and its parts work or function Parietal cells Chief cells Enteroendocrine (d) cell © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 9 10 Physiology Levels of Structural Organization ▪ Structure determines what functions can occur ▪ Six levels of structural organization ▪ For example, the air sacs of the lungs have very 1. Chemical thin walls, a feature that enables them to 2. Cell exchange gases and provide oxygen to the body 3. Tissues 4. Organs 5. Organ systems 6. Organisms © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 11 12 2  04/09/2023 Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 1 Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 2 Smooth muscle cell Atoms Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level Atoms combine to form molecules. Cells are made up form molecules. of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue 3 Tissue level Blood Tissues consist of vessels similar types of cells. Heart Epithelial tissue Smooth muscle tissue Blood vessel (organ) Cardio– Connective vascular tissue system 4 Organ level Organs are made up of 5 Organ system level 6 Organismal level different types of tissues. Organ systems consist of Human organisms are different organs that work made up of many organ together closely. systems. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 13 14 Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 3 Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 4 Smooth muscle cell Smooth muscle cell Atoms Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level 2 Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level form molecules. Cells are made up form molecules. Cells are made up of molecules. of molecules. Smooth muscle tissue 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 15 16 Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 5 Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 6 Smooth muscle cell Smooth muscle cell Atoms Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level form molecules. Cells are made up form molecules. Cells are made up of molecules. of molecules. Smooth Smooth muscle muscle tissue tissue 3 Tissue level 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of Blood Tissues consist of similar types of vessels similar types of cells. cells. Heart Epithelial Epithelial tissue tissue Smooth Smooth muscle muscle tissue Blood tissue Blood vessel vessel (organ) (organ) Connective Cardio– Connective tissue vascular tissue system 4 Organ level 4 Organ level Organs are made up of Organs are made up of different types of tissues. 5 Organ system level different types of tissues. Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 17 18 3  04/09/2023 Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 7 Organ System Overview Smooth muscle cell Atoms 1 Chemical level Molecules Atoms combine to form molecules. 2 Cellular level Cells are made up ▪ Integumentary system of molecules. ▪ Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes Smooth muscle hair and fingernails 3 Tissue level Tissues consist of tissue ▪ Waterproofs the body Blood vessels similar types of cells. ▪ Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury Heart Epithelial ▪ Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight ▪ Excretes salts in perspiration tissue Smooth muscle ▪ Helps regulate body temperature tissue Blood vessel (organ) Cardio– vascular Connective tissue ▪ Location of cutaneous nerve receptors system 4 Organ level Organs are made up of 5 Organ system level 6 Organismal level different types of tissues. Organ systems consist of Human organisms are different organs that work made up of many organ together closely. systems. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 19 20 Figure 1.2a The body’s organ systems. Hair Organ System Overview Skin ▪ Skeletal system ▪ Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints ▪ Provides muscle attachment for movement Fingernails ▪ Protects vital organs ▪ Site of blood cell formation ▪ Stores minerals (a) Integumentary System Forms the external body covering; protects deeper tissue from injury; synthesizes vitamin D; location of sensory receptors (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 21 22 Figure 1.2b The body’s organ systems. Organ System Overview Cartilages ▪ Muscular system Joint ▪ Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten) Bones ▪ Produces movement of bones (b) Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs; provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement; blood cells are formed within bones; stores minerals. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 23 24 4  04/09/2023 Figure 1.2c The body’s organ systems. Organ System Overview Skeletal muscles ▪ Nervous system ▪ Fast-acting control system ▪ Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors ▪ Responds to internal and external stimuli ▪ Sensory receptors detect changes ▪ Messages are sent to the central nervous system ▪ Central nervous system assesses information and activates effectors (muscles and glands) (c) Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression; maintains posture; produces heat. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 25 26 Figure 1.2d The body’s organ systems. Brain Sensory Organ System Overview receptor Spinal cord ▪ Endocrine system ▪ Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into Nerves the blood ▪ Body functions controlled by hormones include: ▪ Growth ▪ Reproduction ▪ Use of nutrients (d) Nervous System Fast-acting control system of the body; responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 27 28 Figure 1.2e The body’s organ systems. Pineal gland Organ System Overview Pituitary gland Thyroid gland (parathyroid glands ▪ Endocrine system (continued) on posterior aspect) Thymus gland ▪ Endocrine glands include: Adrenal glands ▪ Pituitary gland Pancreas ▪ Thyroid and parathyroids Testis (male) ▪ Adrenal glands Ovary (female) ▪ Thymus ▪ Pancreas ▪ Pineal gland ▪ Ovaries (females) and testes (males) (e) Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by body cells. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 29 30 5  04/09/2023 Figure 1.2f The body’s organ systems. Organ System Overview Heart ▪ Cardiovascular system ▪ Includes heart and blood vessels ▪ Heart pumps blood ▪ Vessels transport blood to tissues Blood ▪ Blood transports: vessels ▪ Oxygen and carbon dioxide ▪ Nutrients ▪ Hormones ▪ Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals that provide protection from foreign invaders (f) Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes, etc.; the heart pumps blood. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 31 32 Figure 1.2g The body’s organ systems. Organ System Overview ▪ Lymphatic system ▪ Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and Lymph nodes lymphoid organs ▪ Complements the cardiovascular system by returning leaked fluids back to bloodstream ▪ Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the Lymphatic blood vessels ▪ Houses white blood cells, which are involved in immunity (g) Lymphatic System Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood; disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream; houses white blood cells involved in immunity. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 33 34 Figure 1.2h The body’s organ systems. Nasal Organ System Overview cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea ▪ Respiratory system Bronchi ▪ Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, Lungs bronchi, and lungs ▪ Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs in the lungs ▪ Supplies the body with oxygen ▪ Removes carbon dioxide (h) Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide; the gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 35 36 6  04/09/2023 Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems. Organ System Overview Oral cavity Esophagus ▪ Digestive system Stomach ▪ Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, Small intestine small and large intestines, rectum, and accessory Large organs intestine ▪ Breaks down food Rectum ▪ Allows for nutrient absorption into blood ▪ Eliminates indigestible material as feces (i) Digestive System Breaks food down into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood for distribution to body cells; indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 37 38 Figure 1.2j The body’s organ systems. Organ System Overview Kidney ▪ Urinary system Ureter ▪ Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and Urinary urethra bladder ▪ Eliminates nitrogenous wastes ▪ Maintains acid-base balance Urethra ▪ Regulates water and electrolyte balance ▪ Helps regulate normal blood pressure (j) Urinary System Eliminates nitrogen-containing wastes from the body; regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 39 40 Figure 1.2k-l The body’s organ systems. Organ System Overview Mammary glands (in breasts) Prostate ▪ Reproductive system Seminal gland Uterine tube vesicles ▪ For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis, Ovary accessory glands, and duct system Uterus ▪ Testes produce sperm Penis ▪ Duct system carries sperm to exterior Testis Vagina ▪ For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes, Scrotum uterus, and vagina ▪ Ovaries produce eggs ▪ Uterus provides site of development for fetus (k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 41 42 7  04/09/2023 Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions Necessary Life Functions ▪ Maintaining boundaries ▪ Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body ▪ Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside” ▪ Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones ▪ Movement ▪ Builds larger molecules from smaller ones ▪ Locomotion ▪ Produces energy (ATP) ▪ Movement of substances ▪ Regulated by hormones ▪ Responsiveness (irritability) ▪ Excretion ▪ Ability to sense changes and react ▪ Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions ▪ Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat ▪ Digestion ▪ Breakdown and absorption of nutrients © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 43 44 Necessary Life Functions Survival Needs ▪ Reproduction ▪ Nutrients ▪ Occurs on cellular level or organismal level ▪ Chemicals used for energy and cell building ▪ On cellular level—new cells are used for growth and ▪ Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and repair minerals ▪ On organismal level—the reproductive system handles the task ▪ Oxygen ▪ Required for chemical reactions ▪ Growth ▪ Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory ▪ Increases cell size or body size (through increasing and cardiovascular systems the number of cells) ▪ Hormones play a major role © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 45 46 Survival Needs Survival Needs ▪ Water ▪ Atmospheric pressure ▪ 60 to 80 percent of body weight ▪ Must be appropriate for gas exchange ▪ Most abundant chemical in the human body ▪ Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions ▪ Normal body temperature ▪ 37ºC (98.6ºF) ▪ Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and stop ▪ Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed too rapidly © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 47 48 8  04/09/2023 Figure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among organ systems that illustrate life functions. Digestive system Respiratory system Takes in nutrients, digests them Takes in oxygen, which is (part of metabolism), and excretes unabsorbed matter (feces) required for metabolism, and excretes carbon dioxide Homeostasis Food O2 CO2 Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs ▪ Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively stable Blood internal conditions ▪ A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance CO2 O2 ▪ Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain Heart Nutrients Urinary system Excretes nitrogen- life containing wastes ▪ Main controlling systems and excess ions Interstitial fluid ▪ Nervous system ▪ Endocrine system Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid ▪ Homeostatic imbalance ▪ A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease Integumentary system Feces are Protects the body as a whole Urine is excreted from the external environment excreted by maintaining boundaries © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 49 50 Maintaining Homeostasis Maintaining Homeostasis ▪ All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least ▪ Control center three components: receptor, control center, and ▪ Determines set point effector ▪ Analyzes information ▪ Receptor ▪ Determines appropriate response ▪ Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli) ▪ Effector ▪ Sends information to control center along an afferent pathway ▪ Provides a means for response to the stimulus ▪ Information flows from control center to effector along efferent pathway © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 51 52 Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 1 Feedback Mechanisms 3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information Control ▪ Negative feedback is sent along afferent pathway to control Center is sent along efferent pathway to effector. center. ▪ Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms Afferent pathway Efferent pathway Receptor Effector ▪ Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity 2 Receptor detects change. 5 Response ▪ Works like a household thermostat of effector feeds back to reduce 1 Stimulus the effect of produces stimulus and change in returns variable VARIABLE (in homeostasis) to homeostatic variable. level. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 53 54 9  04/09/2023 Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 2 Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 3 Receptor 2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus 1 Stimulus produces produces change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) variable. variable. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 55 56 Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 4 Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 5 3 Input: Information 3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information is sent along afferent Control is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent pathway to control Center pathway to control Center pathway to effector. center. Afferent center. Afferent Efferent pathway pathway pathway Receptor Receptor Effector 2 Receptor 2 Receptor detects change. detects change. 1 Stimulus 1 Stimulus produces produces change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) change in VARIABLE (in homeostasis) variable. variable. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 57 58 Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 6 Feedback Mechanisms 3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information Control is sent along afferent pathway to control Center is sent along efferent pathway to effector. ▪ Positive feedback center. Afferent pathway Efferent pathway ▪ Rare in the human body Receptor Effector 2 Receptor ▪ Increases the original stimulus to push the variable detects change. 5 Response of effector feeds farther back to reduce 1 Stimulus the effect of ▪ Reaction occurs at a faster rate stimulus and produces change in returns variable ▪ In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting VARIABLE (in homeostasis) variable. to homeostatic level. and during the birth of a baby © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 59 60 10  04/09/2023 The Language of Anatomy The Language of Anatomy ▪ Special terminology is used to prevent ▪ Anatomical position misunderstanding ▪ Standard body position used to avoid confusion ▪ Exact terms are used for: ▪ Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual body position ▪ Position ▪ Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides ▪ Direction with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away ▪ Regions from the body ▪ Structures © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 61 62 Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms. Directional Terms ▪ Directional terms ▪ Explain location of one body structure in relation to another © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 63 64 Directional Terms Directional Terms ▪ Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or ▪ Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the upper part of a structure or the body; above body; in front of ▪ Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward ▪ Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of the lower part of a structure or the body; below the body; behind © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 65 66 11  04/09/2023 Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 3) Directional Terms ▪ Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of ▪ Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of ▪ Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 67 68 Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (2 of 3) Directional Terms ▪ Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk ▪ Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 69 70 Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (3 of 3) Directional Terms ▪ Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface ▪ Deep (internal): away from the body surface; more internal © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 71 72 12  04/09/2023 Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms. Cephalic Regional Terms Frontal Orbital Upper limb Acromial Nasal Buccal Deltoid Oral Brachial (arm) Mental Antecubital ▪ Anterior (ventral) body landmarks Cervical Thoracic Olecranal Sternal Antebrachial Axillary (forearm) Pectoral Carpal (wrist) Abdominal Manus (hand) Umbilical Digital Pelvic Inguinal (groin) Lower limb Coxal (hip) Pubic (genital) Femoral (thigh) Patellar Crural (leg) KEY: Thorax Fibular Abdomen Pedal (foot) Tarsal (ankle) Digital (a) Anterior/Ventral © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 73 74 Figure 1.4b The anatomical position and regional terms. Cephalic Regional Terms Upper limb Acromial Occipital (back of head) Cervical Brachial (arm) ▪ Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks Olecranal Back (dorsal) Antebrachial Scapular (forearm) Vertebral Lumbar Manus (hand) Sacral Digital Gluteal Lower limb Femoral (thigh) Popliteal Sural (calf) Fibular KEY: Pedal (foot) Back (Dorsum) Calcaneal Plantar © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. (b) Posterior/Dorsal 75 76 Body Planes and Sections Body Planes and Sections ▪ Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as ▪ A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into planes left and right parts ▪ Three types of planes or sections exist as right ▪ A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body angles to one another (or organ) into equal left and right parts ▪ A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or organ) into anterior and posterior parts ▪ A transverse, or cross, section divides the body (or organ) into superior and inferior parts © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 77 78 13  04/09/2023 Figure 1.5 The planes of the body—median, frontal, and transverse—with corresponding MRI scans. Body Cavities ▪ Two internal body cavities ▪ Dorsal ▪ Ventral (a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane ▪ Body cavities provide varying degrees of Vertebral Right Left protection to organs within them column lung Heart lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal fat layer cord © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 79 80 Figure 1.6 Body cavities. Cranial Body Cavities cavity ▪ Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions 1. Cranial cavity Thoracic cavity ▪ Houses the brain ▪ Protected by the skull Diaphragm 2. Spinal cavity ▪ Houses the spinal cord ▪ Protected by the vertebrae Abdominopelvic Abdominal Spinal cavity cavity cavity Pelvic cavity KEY: Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 81 82 Body Cavities Body Cavities ▪ Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions ▪ Thoracic cavity separated by the diaphragm ▪ Cavity superior to the diaphragm 1. Thoracic cavity ▪ Houses heart, lungs, and other organs 2. Abdominopelvic cavity ▪ Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart, trachea, and other organs ▪ Protected by the rib cage © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. © 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. 83