Cognitive Note on Long-Term Memory PDF

Lecture 7 Chapter 7 Long Term Memory: Encoding, retrieval and consolidation 1. Getting information into LTM (P. 188) • Encoding • Retrieval • maintenance rehearsal • elaborate rehearsal 2. Level of processing theory • Craik & Lockhard 1072 • Death of processing 3. Levels of processing th...

Lecture 7 Chapter 7 Long Term Memory: Encoding, retrieval and consolidation 1. Getting information into LTM (P. 188) • Encoding • Retrieval • maintenance rehearsal • elaborate rehearsal 2. Level of processing theory • Craik & Lockhard 1072 • Death of processing 3. Levels of processing theory • Craik & Tulving 1975 4. Be ware of circular reasoning 5. Other factors that aid encoding 6. Demonstration • Jenkins & Russell 1952 7. Organisation, comprehension and memory • Bransford & Johnson 1972 8. Other factors that aid encoding 9. Retrieval practice 10. Retrieving information from LTM 11. Matching conditions of encoding and retrieval 12. Encoding specificity 13. State dependent learning 14. Matching the cognitive task 15. Transfer-appropriate processing 16. Spacing Effect in learning 17. Consolidation 18. Information storage at the synapse 19. The fragility of new memories 20. Consolidation and sleep: enhancing memory 21. Consolidation in sleep depends on expectation 22. Are memories ever ‘Permanent’? • Nader 2000 • PTSD study : - Brunet 2008 - Hupbach 2007 23. Improving learning and memory Getting information into LTM key concept: some methods of encoding is more effective than others. 1. Encoding • F refer to the process used to get information into LTM e.g. a word can be encoded by repeating it over and over again, by thinking of other words that rhyme with it or by using it in a sentence 2. Coding #3 E • refer to the form in which information is represented e.g a word can be coded visually or by its sound or by its meaning. 3. Retrieval • involve some of the encoded information and transferring it from LTM into working memory to become consciously aware of it • the process of transferring information from LTM to working memory • to get information out again when needed, e.g. answer exam questions • whether or not you can retrieve information from LTM is depend on the way information was encoded when you learned it * encode -> retrieval -> memory elaborative -> retrieval -> rehearsal memory Encoding : Getting information into LTM 1. maintenance rehearsal • repeating information without considering meaning or making connections to other information A -> typically result in poor memory when you don’t use the information e.g. holding a phone number in your memory by repeating it over and over. If you do this without any consideration of meaning or making connections with other information. 2. Elaborative rehearsal • ~ deep processing Vretrieval to level working memory . repeating information with considering meaning or making connections to other information A -> typically result in better memory => maintenance rehearsal and Elaborative rehearsal how encoding can influence the ability to retrieve memories I Level of processing theory Craik and Lockhard 1972 theory: memory depends on the depth of processing that an item receives Types of processing: 1. Shallow processing • little attention to meaning e.g. when a phone number is repeated over and over, or when attention is focused on a word’s physical features such as whether it is printed in lowercase or capital letters. 2. Deep processing • closes attention to meaning • focusing on an item’s meaning and relating it to something else => Shallow processing and Deep processing Deep processing results in better memory than Shallow processing Craik and Lockhart 1972 Purpose: a prototypical example of a levels- of- processing experiment • present words to ppt and asked them three different types of questions 1. A question about the physical features of the word. e.g. participants see the word bird and are asked whether it is printed in capital letter 2. A question about rhyming e.g. ppt see the word train and are asked if it rhymes with the word pain 3. A fill-in-blanks question e.g. ppt see the word car and are asked if it fits into the sentence ‘he saw a ___ on the street.’ (1) physical features: shallow processing (2) rhyming : deep processing (3) fill-in-blanks question: deepest processing To test ppt’s memory, ppt were given a memory test to see how well they recalled the words Limitation of level of reasoning e.g. how do we know that the fill-in-the blanks task results in deeper processing than the rhyming task? encoding task results in better memory performance how can we remember words better? Example of circular reasoning • depth of processing test has not been defined independently of memory performance Current memory research rarely uses level of processing • widely accepted -> retrieval is affected by how information is encoded Other factors aid encoding 1. Forming visual imagery Bower and Winzenz 1970 Purpose: to test whether using visual imagery can create connections that enhance memory Procedure: Paired-associate learning • a list of word pairs is presented at encoding • during the test phase, the first word of each part is presented and the ppt’s task is to remember the word it was paired with. • presented a list of 15 pairs of nouns, e.g. boat-tree to ppt for 5 seconds each • Group A: ppt was told to silently repeat the pairs as item were interacting • Group B: ppt were given the first word and asked to recalled the second one for each pair results • Group B ppt who had created images in their mind remembered more than twice as many words as the Group A ppt who had just repeated the word pairs. factor aid encoding:Linking words to yourself Key terms: Self- reference effect Roger 1977 purpose: memory is better if you are asked to relate a word to yourself procedure: 1. uses depth-of-processing experiment 2. Ppt read a question for three seconds then saw a word 3. they had to provide an answer to a yes or no question 4. The question is “describes you?” e.g. ‘Printed in small case?’ happy ‘Rhymes with happy?’ snappy ‘Means the same as happy’ upbeat ‘Describe you?’ happy result: • ppt are likely to remember the words that they had rated as describing themselves • more detailed described representations in a person’s mind result in better memory explanation: • the word become linked to something the ppt know very well like themselves factor aid encoding: Generalising information key word: Generation effect Slameka and Graf 1978 purpose : generating material yourself enhance learning and retention procedure: 1. Read group: read these pairs of related word, king- crown; horse - saddle etc 2. Generating group: fill in the blank with a word that is related to the first word, king- cr___; horse - sa___ etc result: • Generating group reproduce 28 percent more words than read group. Key word: retrieval cue retrieval cue • a word or stimulus that help a person remember information stored in memory Jenkins and Russels 1952 purpose: ppt spontaneously organise items as they recall them procedure: 1. a word in a particular category, fruit is the retrieval cue word for other words in that category 2. remember the word apple is a retrieval cue for other fruits such as grapes result; • create a recall list that is more organised than the original list that you read • words presented randomly but organised in the mind Words presented in an organised way during encoding Bower, Clark, Winzenz 1969 procedure: 1. present material to be learned in an ‘organisational tree’ which prearranged a number of words according to particular categories in a hierarchical format mineral- / L metal / L rare - platinum silver gold , , stones clothing - ↓ cronman fr aluminium Transporting - copper lead iron 2. One group of ppt study four separate ‘organisational tree’ for minerals, animals, clothing and transporting respectively for one minute each 3. Ppt were asked to recall as many words as they could from all ‘trees’ result: • in the recall test, ppt tended to organise their responses in the same way as that the tree was organised, for example, mineral, then metal, and so on • ppt in this group recalled an average of 73 words from all four trees. • another group of ppt, they also saw all four trees, but the words were mixed up • they were able to remember only 21 words from all trees => reorganising material to be remember result in better recall Chapter 11 P.345 Organisation, comprehension and memory key words: Making inference 推斷 - determine what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text Brandsford and Johnson 1973 procedure: 1. Ppt were asked to read passages ' John was fixing the house when his dad came out and help him’ 2. Ppt were tested on what they could remember ‘John was holding a hammer to fix the birdhouse…’ 3. After reading the passage, ppt were likely to indicate they had previously seen the following passage even though they didn’t read that John was using a hammer result: - because ppt inferred that John was using a hammer from the information that he was pounding the nail. IEEE TBP. 240 Von Restorff effect : Isolation effect • an encoding advantage for distinctive stimuli • finding distinctiveness or un-expectancy aid memory TBP. 193 Retrieval practice effect procedure: 1. Re- Read: re-reading the material 2. Retrieval practice: being tested on the material ~ result: encoding words) x I Clinking = - proved testing effect, enhance performance due to retrieval practice - provide connections between the materials to aid encoding test = ↑ retrieval Retrieval cue key words: retrieval cue • words or other stimuli that help us remember information stored in our memory key words: retrieval • getting information out of memory • retrieval cues: 1. The use of retrieval cue or ‘hint’ 2. Matching encoding and retrieval conditions • explain why studied hard on exam but can’t come up with an answer when taking an exam Tulving and Pearlston 1966 purpose: to demonstrate retrieval cues aid memory procedure: to remember a list of words 1. Free call group: write down as many words as possible in recall 2. Cued recall group: provided with the names of categories (bird, funiture) result: • Free call group: recalled 40 percent of words • Cued recall group: recalled 75 percent of the words Mantyla 1986 purpose: to prove retrieval cue aid memory procedure: 1. a list of 504 nouns such as banana, freedom, tree 2. study phrase: ppt were told to write three words associated with each noun e.g. banana might be yellow , bunches, edible 3. Test phrase: ppt were presented with the three words they had generated (self- generated retrieval cue) for half of the nouns, or with words that someone else had generated (other person generated retrieval cues) for other half of the nouns. 4. the task is to remember the noun they had seen during the study phase The cue is effective to the person who created them results: • when the self- generated retrieval cues were presented -> ppt remember 91 percent of the words • when other person generated retrieval cues were presented -> ppt remember 55 percent of the words Three different ways to achieve matching 1. Encoding specificity • encode information along with its context Godden and Baddeley 1975 purpose: demonstrate coding specificity ‘diving experiment’ procedure: 1. one group: ppt studied a list of word under water 2. another group: ppt studied a list of word on land result: • by the numbers show that the best recall occurred when encoding and retrieval occurred in the same location 1. Noisy and quiet encoding Grand 1998 Procedure: 1. the ppt read an article on psycho-immunology while wearing headphones 2. the ppt in the ‘quiet’ condition heard nothing in the headphone 3. the ppt in the ‘noise’ condition heard a tape of background noise recording result: • ppt were given a short-answer test under quiet situation • other ppt were given a short-answer test under noisy situation = ppt did better when the testing condition matched the study condition 2. State-dependent learning key word: state-dependent learning • learning that is associated with particular internal state such as mood or awareness Eich and Metcalfe 1989 purpose: demonstrate memory is better when a person ’s mood during retrieval matches his or her mood procedure: 1. ppt were asked to think positive thoughts while listening to cheery happy song / depressed thoughts while listening to sad song 2. ppt rated their mod while listening to the music 3. the encoding part of the experiment began when their rating reached ‘very pleasant’ or ‘very unpleasant’ 4. Once this occurred, usually within 15-20 minutes, ppt studied lists of words while in their positive or negative mood 5. Two weeks later, both groups did a memory test result: • they did better when their mood at retrieval matched their mood during encoding 3. Transfer-appropriate processing key word: Transfer-appropriate processing • matching the task involved in encoding and retrieval procedure: part 1: encoding 1. ppt heard a sentence with one word replaced by ______ silence and two seconds later they heard a target word 2. two encoding conditions: 1. in the meaning condition: the task was to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ based on the meaning of the word when it filled in _______. 2. In the rhyming condition: ppt answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ based not the sound of the word encode part 2 : retrieval ↓ retrieval 1. ppt answered to a list of word ‘yes’ if the word rhymed with target words presented in the encoding stage / answer ‘no’ of the word didn’t. result: - ppt’s retrieval performance was better when the retrieval task matched the encoding task e.g. ppt focused on rhyming during encoding remembered more words than ppt who had focused on meaning - ppt focused on the sound during the part 1 did better when the test also involved focusing on sound deep processing - ---> meaning => better performance when the type of processing matches in encoding and retrieval deeper processing at encoding (meaning) doesn’t always result in better retrieval TBP. 216 • study in a number of shorter study sessions rather than trying to learn everything at once • support sleep after studying can improve consolidation Hippccumpus -> -> -> Consolidation -> • facts I key words: Consolidation TBP. 203 & consolidation recollection memory declarative events & Episodic memory) retrieve recall & e eg piano g . . Studying the process that transforms new memories from a fragile state, in which they can be disrupted to a more permanent state, in which they are resistant to disruption. · · Encoding, retrieval and consolidation are three important process of memory. re s e t no synaptic new memory interfere (during sleep) STM-> LiM consolidation Muller and Pilzecder 1900 retrieval procedure: 1. Two groups of ppt learnt lists of nonsense syllables 2. The immediate group: learnt first list and then immediately learnt a second list 3. The delay group: learnt first list and then wait for 6 minutes before learning the second list result: - the delay group remember 48 percent of the syllables - the immediate group remember 28 percent of the syllables because learning the second list interrupt the forming of a stable memory for the first list cortical ↑ Cortical HiPO . 28 % Test for No delay list I - I Recall of list t ↑ ① - Sins ↑ Test for list I % O 4 8 two types of consolidation: stage 1. synapses consolidation • take place over minutes or hours, involves structural changes at synapses after learning • faster stage 2. system consolidation • take places over months or even years, involves the gradual reorganisation of neural circuit within the brain • slower · · · strengthening - a cortical : memory - stronger connection need sleeping to after weaken traces new learning strength -> memory trace & reactive after wake = both synapse and system consolidation occur together but at different speeds and different level of nervous system Synaptic consolidation: Experience causes changes at the synapse Hebb 1984 purpose: learning and memory are represented in the brain by physiological changes that take place at the synapse procedure: 1. assume particular experience happened causes nerve impulses to travel down the axon of neuron A 2. When these impulses reach the synapse, the neurotransmitter is released onto neuron B result: - the repeated activity can strengthen the synapse by causing structural changes, greater transmitter release and increased firing - new memories are formed not by the formation of new cells but by strengthening of connections between already existing neurons = cells that fire together wire together ①E **** E Strengthen ② ESIE SA E Tr new Strengthen ** in synapse cells neurons , Hi up I synaptic plasticity synapse - Long term potentiation (LTP) ↳ ↳ 7-" - I transmiter pre key words: long term potentiation synaptic practise the first neuron A is stimulated, neuron B fires slowly • repeated stimulation, neuron B fires much more rapidly to the same stimuli sending insidel outside better signe LTP stronger result: neural records of an experience difference sending signals • and charger been it gets enhanced firing of neurons after repeated stimulation firing3 potential synaptic • • I : -> learning occurs synapse More easily recall previously indicate how experiences can cause changes at the synapse experiences e.g. memory from experience cause changes in many thousands of synapse and a specific experience presented by the pattern of firing across this group of neurons Systems consolidation: the hippocampus and the cortex the case of the patient H.M. : damage in hippocampus, can’t form new memory purpose: to determine the exact role of hippocampus and how it participates in the process of system consolidation -> prose the sequence steps of standard model of consolidation key words: standard model of consolidation 1 incoming information activates a numbers of areas in the cortex • activation is distributed across the cortex because memories involve many sensory and cognitive areas e.g. your memory for last new year eve could include sights, sounds, and smell, emotions you ere feeling and thoughts you were thinking at the stroke of midnight - the cortex communicates with the hippocampus indicates the coloured lines -> hippocampus coordinates the communication between different cortical areas Hippocampuse->cortical key words: retrograde amnesia • 549 loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury Es 7 Fi bEY GE , E : areas . key words: Graded amnesia • MES En : be Is EF7 EFY the amnesia tends to be most severe for events that happened just before the injury and to less severe for earlier events -> recent memory is affected more because remote memory is not R A less severe more severe 2. major consolidation: reactivation - a process of the hippocampus ‘replays’ the neural activity associated with a memory • activity occurs in the network direct connecting the hippocampus and the cortex attende 3. cross-cortical consolidation • Hippocampus is like a glue for recent memory and overtime the involvement of consolidation hippocampus become weaker sim I n STM retrieval = remote memory = brain area directly connect = hippocampus not involve ~ hippocampus = retrieval depends on hippocampus during consolidation, after consolidation hippocampus is no longer needed Standard model Stage 1 TBP. 206 • Hippocampus is strongly active when memories are first formed and initially recalled • Becomes less involved as memories are consolidated • To retrieve remote memories (memory for events occurred long ago) -> the connection between cortical areas themselves are sufficient - Multiple trace of model of consolidation • the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of episodic memories, even memory is originated long ago Giboa 2004 • recent and remote episodic memories by showing ppt photographs of themselves engaging in various activities that were taken at times ranging from very recently to the distant past like 5 years old result: • the hippocampus was activated during retrieval of both recent and remote episodic memory fMRI experiment Harand 2012 Procedure: 1. ppt are required to memories 192 pictures differed in valence (positive, neural, negative) 2. the fMRI Tok place three days later when ppt performed a recognition test -> the test involve the study pictures were shown again with large number of new ones 3. Ppt had four response options ‘remember’, ‘know’, ‘guess’ or ‘new’ ‘remember’= could remember specific details, ‘know’= familiaity results: • remember responses dropped from the 3-day to 90-day delayed period • Hippocampus much larger for RR than Rk response = hippocampus remain stable over time for episodic memories, but decreased significantly for those episodic memories that became semantic over time episodic Remember to -remain * stable I semantic know Consolidation and sleep: Enhancing memory Gais 2006 Purpose: sleep enhance consolidation procedure: 1. by having German high school students learn a list of 24 pairs of English German vocal 2. Sleep group: studied and went to slept 3. Awake group: studied and stay awake for 10 hours before getting a night sleep results: • sleep group forgot less material than awake group reasons: sleeping avoid environmental stimuli that interfere with consolidation ↓ ↳ Reconsolidate studies Nader 2000 purpose: In PTSD, OCD addiction, reconsolidating after modifications is important procedure: 1. use classical conditioning to create a fear response in the rat comprising a ‘freeze’ response (not moving) to the presentation of tone -> pairing a tone with a shock => the rat stops when it hears the tone => memory for tone-shock pairing is indicated when the rat freezes to the tone 2. In three conditions, the rat receives a tone-shock pairing and injected with anisomycin: an antibiotic that inhibits protein to prevent change at the synapse that are responsible for the formation of new memory 3. The key is when the injection is made before consolidation: it eliminates memory after consolidation: it has no effect, the rat remember the tone-shock pairing, it freezes result: • memory becomes susceptible to being changed or disrupted every time it is retrieved. PTSD study Brunet 2008 purpose: practical outcome for reconsolidate memory, a treatment to PTSD procedure: 1. PTSD patients listened to a 30-second recording describing the circumstances of their traumatic experience and received propranolol 2. another group list to the a 30-second recording describing the circumstances of their traumatic experience and received placebo 3. one week later, both groups asked to imagine their traumatic experience and again listen to a 30-second recording describing the circumstances of their traumatic experience 4. measure their blood pressure and skin conductance to measure their reaction of imaging traumatic experience result: • ppt taken propranolol experienced much smaller increase of heart rate and skin conductance than the placebo group. • propranolol blocks the stress response in amygdala and reduced the emotional reaction associated with remembering trauma Hupbach 2007 • provide evidence for the effect of reactivation in human using the following procedure Procedure: Day 1: ppt studied a list of words naming everyday object, e.g. envelope,, teabag Day 2: - the reminded group: was reminded of their learning on Day 1 by being asked to remember their training session (without actually recalling the words) • after reminding, they immediately learn the second list of words - the non-reminded group: they learned a second list of words (with no reminder) - both groups were asked to on day 3 to remember the first list of words result: • the non-reminded group: recalled 45 percent of words from the first list; mistakenly remember 5 percent of the second list of words • the reminded group: recalled 36 percent of words from the first list; mistakenly remember 24 percent of the second list of words => the reminder of the training session is reactivation of memory -> on Day 1 acted as ‘opening the door’ to change the memory of the first list of words,