CE100-Lecture-1.pdf

Lecture Note In CE 100 Western Philippines University College of Engineering and Technology Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering First Semester Academic Year 2024-2025 Engr. Samuel A. Espartero Instructor I...

Lecture Note In CE 100 Western Philippines University College of Engineering and Technology Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering First Semester Academic Year 2024-2025 Engr. Samuel A. Espartero Instructor I Topics 1. Lecture 1 History of Civil Engineering Lesson 1: Introduction Lesson 2: Education Lesson 3: Practicing Engineers 2. Lecture 2 Civil Engineering and Society and Other Professions Lesson 1: Civil Engineering and Society and Other Professions Lesson 2: Current Fields/Careers of Civil Engineering 3. Lecture 3: Specialization in Civil Engineering Lesson 1: Structural Engineering Lesson 2: Construction Engineering and Management Lesson 3: Geotechnical Engineering Lesson 4: Transportation Engineering Lesson 5: Water Resources Engineering Lesson 6” Environment and Energy Engineering 4. Lecture 4: Civil Engineering Sustainability and Environmental Science Lesson 1: Civil Engineering, Sustainability and the Future Lesson 2: Civil Engineering and Environmental Science  Lecture 1 INTRODUCTION The course is concerned with the Civil Engineering Orientation which expressing the civil engineering scope of field of discipline. The course will imply the broad coverage of the civil engineering discipline that gives an emphasis to the numerous fields of its expertise. The civil engineering discipline are covering the design and management of structural engineering, construction engineering and management, geotechnical engineering, water resources engineering, transportation engineering, and environment and energy. The civil engineering also tied up with other discipline like electrical, mechanical, geological, architecture in designing the vertical structures. The emphasis in this subject will be on the elaboration of every course from first year up to the final year of course. The subject also will introduce the codes and standards as the references of the practicing civil engineer. The subject also is not limited to use the other references that relevant to the course. The ASTM, ACI, AISC, Seismic design books that will support to the engineering course aside from using the NBCP, NSCP, ASEP Steel Handbook. History of Civil Engineering Overview In this lecture, the student will gain knowledge about the 1. History of Civil Engineering and Profession 2. How Civil Engineers impact lives 3. Skill required of Civil Engineer 4. Curriculum of Civil Engineering program 5. Fields of Civil Engineering discipline Learning Outcomes After completion of this module the student will be able to: 1. Understand the evolution of civil engineering from ancient to Modern times. 2. Understands the various branches within civil Engineering disciplines. 3. Know the requirement of the civil engineering program. 4. Appreciate the vital role of civil engineers in society and all aspect of our daily lines What is Engineering? Engineering is the use of scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad range of more specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of applied mathematics, applied science, and types of application. The term engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning "cleverness" and ingeniare, meaning "to contrive, devise". Civil Engineering What is Civil Engineering? Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads, bridges, canals, dams, airports, sewage systems, pipelines, structural components of buildings, and railways. Civil engineering is traditionally broken into a number of sub-disciplines. It is considered the second-oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it is defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military engineering. Civil engineering can take place in the public sector from municipal public works departments through to federal government agencies, and in the private sector from locally based firms to global or international companies. Following is the set of key term/concept used in the discussion of the topic in this lesson. 1. Orientation 5. Infrastructure 2. Civil engineering 6. Water supply 3. Civil engineers 7. Geotechnical 4. Structural engineers Civil Engineering field of practice: 1. Structural Engineering 2. Construction Engineering and Management 3. Geotechnical Engineering 4. Water Resources Engineering 5. Transportation Engineering Definition of Key Term / Concept Orientation – a program of introduction for new comes to civil engineering course. Civil engineering – an engineering discipline that deal with the design construction and maintenance of the physically and naturally built environment, including public works such as roads bridges, canals, dams, building etc. Civil Engineer – a person who is legally allowed to practice civil engineering. Structural Engineering – a branch of civil engineering dealing primarily in design and construction of structures such as bridges, buildings, dams, and other vertical and horizontal structures. Infrastructure – the system of public works of a country, region, or provincial. It also requires personnel, building, or equipment for activity. Water supply – the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organization or individual, usually via a system pumps and pipes - a source, means, or process of supplying water for community usually including reservoirs, tunnels, and pipelines. Geotechnical Engineering - the application of scientific method and engineering principles to the acquisition. Interpretation and use of knowledge of material of the earth’s crust and earth material for the solution of engineering problem and design of engineering works introduction. A. History of Civil Engineering It is difficult to determine the history of emergence and beginning of civil engineering, however, that the history of civil engineering is a mirror of the history of human beings on this earth. Man used the old shelter caves to protect themselves of weather and harsh environment, and used a tree trunk to cross the river, which being the demonstration of ancient age civil engineering. Civil Engineering Profession Civil Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginnings of human existence. The earliest practice of civil engineering may have commenced between 4000 and 2000 BC in ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilization, and Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence, creating a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. Leonhard Euler developed the theory explaining the buckling of columns. next meeting 1C/1D August 6, 2024 The construction of pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700–2500 BC) were some of the first instances of large structure constructions. Other ancient historic civil engineering constructions include the Qanat water management system (the oldest is older than 3000 years and longer than 71 km). A qanat or kariz, is a system for transporting water from an aquifer or water well to the surface, through an underground aqueduct. Constructed in Iran, Iraq and numerous other societies, this is an ancient system of water supply which allows water to be transported over long distances in hot dry climates without loss of much of the water to evaporation. The system has the advantage of being resistant to natural disasters such as earthquakes and floods, and to deliberate destruction in war. Furthermore, it is almost insensitive to the levels of precipitation, delivering a flow with only gradual variations from wet to dry years.) The Parthenon by Iktinos in Ancient Greece (447–438 BC), is a former temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the goddess Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their patroness. The Appian Way (Latin and Italian: Via Appia) is one of the earliest and strategically most important Roman roads of the ancient republic. It connected Rome to Brindisi, in southeast Italy. Its importance is indicated by its common name, recorded by Statius, of Appia longarum... regina viarum ("the Appian Way, the queen of the long roads"). The road is named after Appius Claudius Caecus, the Roman censor who began and completed the first section as a military road to the south in 312 BC during the Samnite Wars. The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications that were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against various nomadic groups from the Eurasian Steppe. Several walls were built from as early as the 7th century BC, with selective stretches later joined together by Qin Shi Huang (220–206 BC), the first emperor of China. Little of the Qin wall remains. Later on, many successive dynasties built and maintained multiple stretches of border walls. The most well-known sections of the wall were built by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). The Jetavanarama stupa or Jetavanaramaya is a stupa, or Buddhist reliquary monument, located in the ruins of Jetavana monastery in the UNESCO world heritage city of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka. At 122 meters (400 ft), and was the world's tallest stupa; and the third tallest structure in the world when it was built by King Mahasena of Anuradhapura (273–301). He initiated the construction of the stupa following the destruction of the Mahaviharaya of Anuradhapura. His son Maghavanna I completed the construction of the stupa, and was renovated by Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa. A part of a sash or belt tied by the Buddha is believed to be the relic that is enshrined here. The Romans developed civil structures throughout their empire, including especially aqueducts, insulae, harbors, bridges, dams and roads. A Roman aqueduct [built circa 19 BC], Pont du Gard, France Roman Cologne, reconstruction An example of bridge (arch type bridge) The Cornalvo Dam is a Roman gravity dam in Badajoz province, Extremadura, Spain, dating to the 1st or 2nd century AD. The earth dam with stone cladding on the water face is still in use. An engraving by Claes Visscher showing Old London Bridge in 1616, with what is now Southwark Cathedral in the foreground. The spiked heads of executed criminals can be seen above the Southwark gatehouse. Chichen Itza was a large pre-Columbian city in Mexico built by the Maya people of the Post Classic. The northeast column temple also covers a channel that funnels all the rainwater from the complex some 40 meters (130 ft) away to a rejollada, a former cenote. Civil Engineering versus Architecture Until modern times there was no clear distinction between civil engineering and architecture, and the term engineer and architect were mainly geographical variations referring to the same occupation, and often used interchangeably. Today, there a lot of distinction between professions. And most relevance are Civil Engineering and Architecture. Many are asking the distinction between these two disciplines. And most question raised is “what is the difference between civil engineering and architecture?” Well, the civil engineering is responsible for construction of different structures, design of structural members of the structure through analysis, can make a drawing or plans even as architectural plans. Unlike architecture is responsible for interior and exterior design of a building, landscape design, meaning they are more in beautification, but in structural, civil engineering is more reliable in designing. Architects also have their structural analysis but is simple application to the building and they are using standards sizes according to their manuals. Civil engineer is designing the building based on the code like National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) as their bible in design in calculating the sizes and dimension of the structure. In this manner, civil engineer is applying a lot of load combinations like dead load, live load, wind load, earthquake load, rain load or even the snow load (which applicable only in the winter countries). Other standards that civil engineer using in Philippines are Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP) Steel Manual, National Building Code, ACI or American Concrete Institute (ACI) as reference in design of concrete structures. In the earliest time of engineering, all structures have been made by civil engineers. Architect at that time is not yet involved or unknown to their profession. But today, architects are known in making floor plans and building elevations. They are artistic in building views like perspective with green background. The design of the building is somewhat issue to civil engineer and architecture and the architects are in contest to be their sole responsibility. But if you are a civil engineer and you can design a residential building, will you hire an architect because of this issue? Of course, you will not. B. Institutional and Educational History of Civil Engineering In the 18th century, the term civil engineering was coined to incorporate all things civilian as opposed to military engineering. In 1747, the first institution for the teaching of civil engineering, the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées was established in France; and more examples followed in other European countries, like Spain. The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton, who constructed the Eddystone Lighthouse. In 1771 Smeaton and some of his colleagues formed the Smeatonian Society of Civil Engineers, a group of leaders of the profession who met informally over dinner. Though there was evidence of some technical meetings, it was little more than a social society. In 1818 the Institution of Civil Engineers was founded in London, and in 1820 the eminent engineer Thomas Telford became its first president. The institution received a Royal Charter in 1828, formally recognizing civil engineering as a profession. Its charter defined civil engineering as: “The art of directing the great sources of power in nature for the use and convenience of man, as the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade, as applied in the construction of roads, bridges, aqueducts, canals, river navigation and docks for internal intercourse and exchange, and in the construction of ports, harbors, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses, and in the art of navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce, and in the construction and application of machinery, and in the drainage of cities and towns.” John Smeaton, the “father of civil Eddystone Lighthouse: John Smeaton's tower John engineering” Smeaton's Eddystone Lighthouse rebuilt on Plymouth Hoe, Plymouth, England. Samot/Shutterstock.com Civil Engineering Education The first private college to teach civil engineering in the United States was Norwich University, founded in 1819 by Captain Alden Partridge. The first degree in civil engineering in the United States was awarded by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in 1835. The first such degree to be awarded to a woman was granted by Cornell University to Nora Stanton Blatch in 1905. In the UK during the early 19th century, the division between civil engineering and military engineering (served by the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich), coupled with the demands of the Industrial Revolution, spawned new engineering education initiatives: the Class of Civil Engineering and Mining was founded at King's College London in 1838, mainly as a response to the growth of the railway system and the need for more qualified engineers, the private College for Civil Engineers in Putney was established in 1839, and the UK's first Chair of Engineering was established at the University of Glasgow in 1840. University, Glasgow, Scotland, ca. 1895 Education Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree in civil engineering. The length of study is three to five years, and the completed degree is designated as a bachelor of technology, or a bachelor of engineering. The curriculum generally includes classes in physics, mathematics, project management, design and specific topics in civil engineering. After taking basic courses in most sub-disciplines of civil engineering, they move on to specialize in one or more sub- disciplines at advanced levels. While an undergraduate degree (BEng/BSc) normally provides successful students with industry-accredited qualification, some academic institutions offer post-graduate degrees (MEng/MSc), which allow students to further specialize in their particular area of interest. Surveying students with professor at the Helsinki University of Technology in the late 19th century. Practicing Engineers In most countries, a bachelor's degree in engineering represents the first step towards professional certification, and a professional body certifies the degree program. After completing a certified degree program, the engineer must satisfy a range of requirements including work experience and exam requirements before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated as a professional engineer (in the United States, Canada and South Africa), a chartered engineer (in most Commonwealth countries), a chartered professional engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or a European engineer (in most countries of the European Union). There are international agreements between relevant professional bodies to allow engineers to practice across national borders. The benefits of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United States and Canada, "only a licensed professional engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work for public and private clients." This requirement is enforced under provincial law such as the Engineers Act in Quebec.. No such legislation has been enacted in other countries including the United Kingdom. In Australia, state licensing of engineers is limited to the state of Queensland. Almost all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics which all members must abide by. Engineers must obey contract law in their contractual relationships with other parties. In cases where an engineer's work fails, they may be subject to the law of tort of negligence, and in extreme cases, criminal charges. An engineer's work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as building codes and environmental law. Sub-disciplines There are a number of sub-disciplines within the broad field of civil engineering. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to design grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, dams, electric and communications supply. General civil engineering is also referred to as site engineering, a branch of civil engineering that primarily focuses on converting a tract of land from one usage to another. Site engineers spend time visiting project sites, meeting with stakeholders, and preparing construction plans. Civil engineers apply the principles of: 1. geotechnical engineering, 2. structural engineering, 3. environmental engineering, 4. transportation engineering and 5. construction engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public works projects of all sizes and levels of construction. Coastal Engineering Coastal engineering is concerned with managing coastal areas. In some jurisdictions, the terms sea defense and coastal protection mean defense against flooding and erosion, respectively. The term coastal defense is the more traditional term, but coastal management has become more popular as the field has expanded to techniques that allow erosion to claim land. Oosterscheldekering, a storm surge barrier in the Netherlands. Construction engineering Construction engineering involves planning and execution, transportation of materials, site development based on hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineering. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil engineering firms do, construction engineers often engage in more business-like transactions, for example, drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations, and monitoring prices of supplies. (Picture taken during my tenure as Quality Manager in Musandam Province, Sultanate of Oman sometime in 2014) Earthquake Engineering Earthquake engineering involves designing structures to withstand hazardous earthquake exposures. Earthquake engineering is a sub-discipline of structural engineering. The main objectives of earthquake engineering are to understand interaction of structures on the shaky ground; foresee the consequences of possible earthquakes; and design, construct and maintain structures to perform at earthquake in compliance with building codes. The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake caused severe liquefaction of the fill upon which the neighborhood is built, causing major damage including a small firestorm. Firefighters resorted to pumping water directly from the Bay, to replace water unavailable from broken water mains. The neighborhood was quickly rebuilt. Physically, the neighborhood appears to have changed very little since its construction in the 1920s. USGS photo from 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Caption: Aerial view of collapsed sections of the en: Cypress Viaduct of en: Interstate 880. [H.G. Wilshire, U.S. Geological Survey] Environmental Engineering Creek contaminated with water pollution Environmental engineering deals with treatment of chemical, biological, or thermal wastes, purification of water and air, and remediation of contaminated sites after waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, waste water treatment, air pollution, solid waste treatment, recycling, and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineers administer pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineers also compile information on environmental consequences of proposed actions. Forensic Engineering Forensic engineering is the investigation of materials, products, structures or components that fail or do not operate or function as intended, causing personal injury or damage to property. The consequences of failure are dealt with by the law of product liability. The field also deals with retracing processes and procedures leading to accidents in operation of vehicles or machinery. The subject is applied most commonly in civil law cases, although it may be of use in criminal law cases. Generally the purpose of a Forensic engineering investigation is to locate cause or causes of failure with a view to improve performance or life of a component, or to assist a court in determining the facts of an accident. It can also involve investigation of intellectual property claims, especially patents. Geotechnical Engineering A phase diagram of soil indicating the weights and volumes of air, soil, water, and voids. Geotechnical engineering studies rock and soil supporting civil engineering systems. Knowledge from the field of soil science, materials science, mechanics, and hydraulics is applied to safely and economically design foundations, retaining walls, and other structures. Environmental efforts to protect groundwater and safely maintain landfills have spawned a new area of research called geo-environmental engineering. Identification of soil properties presents challenges to geotechnical engineers. Boundary conditions are often well defined in other branches of civil engineering, but unlike steel or concrete, the material properties and behavior of soil are difficult to predict due to its variability and limitation on investigation. Furthermore, soil exhibits nonlinear (stress- dependent) strength, stiffness, and dilatancy (volume change associated with application of shear stress), making studying soil mechanics all the more difficult. Geotechnical engineers frequently work with professional geologists and soil scientists. Materials science and engineering Materials science is closely related to civil engineering. It studies fundamental characteristics of materials, and deals with ceramics such as concrete and mix asphalt concrete, strong metals such as aluminum and steel, and thermosetting polymers including polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers. Materials engineering involves protection and prevention (paints and finishes). Alloying combines two types of metals to produce another metal with desired properties. It incorporates elements of applied physics and chemistry. With recent media attention on nanoscience and nanotechnology, materials engineering has been at the forefront of academic research. It is also an important part of forensic engineering and failure analysis. Site Development and Planning Partizánske in Slovakia – an example of a typical planned European industrial city founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking factory in which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed. Site development, also known as site planning, is focused on the planning and development potential of a site as well as addressing possible impacts from permitting issues and environmental challenges. Structural Engineering Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of buildings, bridges, Design towers, flyovers considerations (overpasses), will include strength,tunnels, off shore structures like oil and gas fields in the sea, to earthquake orand aerostructure seismic activity. other structures. This involves identifying the loads which act upon a structure and the forces and stresses which arise within that structure due to those loads, and then designing the structure to successfully support and resist those loads. The loads can be self-weight of the structures, other dead load, live loads, moving (wheel) load, wind load, earthquake load, load from temperature change etc. The structural engineer must design structures to be safe for their users and to successfully fulfill the function they are designed for (to be serviceable). Due to the nature of some loading conditions, sub- disciplines within structural engineering have emerged, including wind engineering and earthquake engineering. The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge in Japan, currently the world's longest suspension span. Surveying Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that occur on or near the surface of the Earth. Surveying equipment such as levels and theodolites are used for accurate measurement of angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. With computerization, electronic distance measurement (EDM), total stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning have to a large extent supplanted traditional instrument. Data collected by survey measurement is converted into a graphical representation of the Earth's surface in the form of a map. This information is then used by civil engineers, contractors and realtors to design from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a structure must be sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures. Although surveying is a distinct profession with separate qualifications and licensing arrangements, civil engineers are trained in the basics of surveying and mapping, as well as geographic information systems. Surveyors also lay out the routes of railways, tramway tracks, highways, roads, pipelines and streets as well as position other infrastructure, such as harbors, before construction. A student using a dumpy level Land Surveying In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and most Commonwealth countries land surveying is considered to be a separate and distinct profession. Land surveyors are not considered to be engineers, and have their own professional associations and licensing requirements. The services of a licensed land surveyor are generally required for boundary surveys (to establish the boundaries of a parcel using its legal description) and subdivision plans (a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land, with boundary lines drawn inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads), both of BLM cadastral survey marker from 1992 which are generally referred to as Cadastral in San Xavier, Arizona. Construction surveying. surveying Construction surveying is generally performed by specialized technicians. Unlike land surveyors, the resulting plan does not have legal status. Construction surveyors perform the following tasks: Surveying existing conditions of the future work site, including topography, existing buildings and infrastructure, and underground infrastructure when possible; "lay-out" or "setting-out": placing reference points and markers that will guide the construction of new structures such as roads or buildings; Verifying the location of structures during construction; As-Built surveying: a survey conducted at the end of the construction project to verify that the work authorized was completed to the specifications set on plans. Transportation engineering Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently, safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports, and mass transit. It includes areas such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, some aspects of urban engineering, queueing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System (ITS), and infrastructure management. GDS Display Mass transit (train) Municipal or urban engineering The engineering of this roundabout in Bristol, England, attempts to make traffic flow free-moving A multi-level stack interchange, buildings, houses, and park in Shanghai, China Lake Chapultepec Municipal engineering is concerned with municipal infrastructure. This involves specifying, designing, constructing, and maintaining streets, sidewalks, water supply networks, sewers, street lighting, municipal solid waste management and disposal, storage depots for various bulk materials used for maintenance and public works (salt, sand, etc.), public parks and cycling infrastructure. In the case of underground utility networks, it may also include the civil portion (conduits and access chambers) of the local distribution networks of electrical and telecommunications services. It can also include the optimizing of waste collection and bus service networks. Some of these disciplines overlap with other civil engineering specialties, however municipal engineering focuses on the coordination of these infrastructure networks and services, as they are often built simultaneously, and managed by the same municipal authority. Municipal engineers may also design the site civil works for large buildings, industrial plants or campuses (i.e. access roads, parking lots, potable water supply, treatment or pretreatment of waste water, site drainage, etc.) Water Resources Engineering Hoover Dam Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water (as a natural resource). As a discipline it therefore combines elements of hydrology, environmental science, meteorology, conservation, and resource management. This area of civil engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams) resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into through, or out of a facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers. Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water supply network, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others. The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland Civil Engineering Systems A civil engineering system is a discipline that promotes the use of systems thinking to manage complexity and change in civil engineering within its wider public context. It posits that the proper development of civil engineering infrastructure requires a holistic, coherent understanding of the relationships between all of the important factors that contribute to successful projects while at the same time emphasizing the importance of attention to technical detail. Its purpose is to help integrate the entire civil engineering project life cycle from conception, through planning, designing, making, operating to decommissioning. The beginnings of civil engineering as a separate discipline may be seen in the foundation in France in 1716 of the Bridge and Highway Corps, out of which in 1747 grew the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (“National School of Bridges and Highways”). Its teachers wrote books that became standard works on the mechanics of materials, machines, and hydraulics, and leading British engineers learned French to read them. As design and calculation replaced rule of thumb and empirical formulas, and as expert knowledge was codified and formulated, the nonmilitary engineer moved to the front of the stage. Talented, if often self-taught, craftsmen, stonemasons, millwrights, toolmakers, and instrument makers became civil engineers. In Britain, James Brindley began as a millwright and became the foremost canal builder of the century; John Rennie was a millwright’s apprentice who eventually built the new London Bridge; Thomas Telford, a stonemason, became Britain’s leading road builder. Formal education in engineering science became widely available as other countries followed the lead of France and Germany. In Great Britain the universities, traditionally seats of classical learning, were reluctant to embrace the new disciplines. University College, London, founded in 1826, provided a broad range of academic studies and offered a course in mechanical philosophy. King’s College, London, first taught civil engineering in 1838, and in 1840 Queen Victoria founded the first chair of civil engineering and mechanics at the University of Glasgow, Scotland. Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, founded in 1824, offered the first courses in civil engineering in the United States. The number of universities throughout the world with engineering faculties, including civil engineering, increased rapidly in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Civil engineering today is taught in universities across the world. Civil Engineering Functions The functions of the civil engineer can be divided into three categories: those performed before construction (feasibility studies, site investigations, and design), those performed during construction (dealing with clients, consulting engineers, and contractors), and those performed after construction (maintenance and research). Feasibility Studies No major project today is started without an extensive study of the objective and without preliminary studies of possible plans leading to a recommended scheme, perhaps with alternatives. Feasibility studies may cover alternative methods—e.g., bridge versus tunnel, in the case of a water crossing—or, once the method is decided, the choice of route. Both economic and engineering problems must be considered. Site Investigations A preliminary site investigation is part of the feasibility study, but once a plan has been adopted a more extensive investigation is usually imperative. Money spent in a rigorous study of ground and substructure may save large sums later in remedial works or in changes made necessary in constructional methods. Since the load-bearing qualities and stability of the ground are such important factors in any large-scale construction, it is surprising that a serious study of soil mechanics did not develop until the mid-1930s. Karl von Terzaghi, the chief founder of the science, gives the date of its birth as 1936, when the First International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering was held at Harvard University and an international society was formed. Today there are specialist societies and journals in many countries, and most universities that have a civil engineering faculty have courses in soil mechanics. Design The design of engineering works may require the application of design theory from many fields—e.g., hydraulics, thermodynamics, or nuclear physics. Research in structural analysis and the technology of materials has opened the way for more rational designs, new design concepts, and greater economy of materials. The theory of structures and the study of materials have advanced together as more and more refined stress analysis of structures and systematic testing has been done. Modern designers not only have advanced theories and readily available design data, but structural designs can now be rigorously analyzed by computers. Construction The promotion of civil engineering works may be initiated by a private client, but most work is undertaken for large corporations, government authorities, and public boards and authorities. Many of these have their own engineering staffs, but for large, specialized projects it is usual to employ consulting engineers. The consulting engineer may be required first to undertake feasibility studies, then to recommend a scheme and quote an approximate cost. The engineer is responsible for the: 1. design of the works, 2. supplying specifications, 3. drawings, and 4. legal documents in sufficient detail to seek competitive tender prices. The engineer must compare quotations and recommend acceptance of one of them. Although not a party to the contract, the engineer’s duties are defined in it; the staff must supervise the construction and the engineer must certify completion of the work. Actions must be consistent with duty to the client; the professional organizations exercise disciplinary control over professional conduct. The consulting engineer’s senior representative on the site is the resident engineer. A phenomenon of recent years has been the turnkey or package contract, in which the contractor undertakes to finance, design, specify, construct, and commission a project in its entirety. In this case, the consulting engineer is engaged by the contractor rather than by the client. The contractor is usually an incorporated company, which secures the contract on the basis of the consulting engineer’s specification and general drawings. The consulting engineer must agree to any variations introduced and must approve the detailed drawings. Maintenance The contractor maintains the works to the satisfaction of the consulting engineer. Responsibility for maintenance extends to ancillary and temporary works where these form part of the overall construction. After construction a period of maintenance is undertaken by the contractor, and the payment of the final installment of the contract price is held back until released by the consulting engineer. Central and local government engineering and public works departments are concerned primarily with maintenance, for which they employ direct labor. Research Research in the civil engineering field is undertaken by government agencies, industrial foundations, the universities, and other institutions. Most countries have government- controlled agencies, such as the United States Bureau of Standards and the National Physical Laboratory of Great Britain, involved in a broad spectrum of research, and establishments in building research, roads and highways, hydraulic research, water pollution, and other areas. Many are government-aided but depend partly on income from research work promoted by industry. Branches of Civil Engineering In 1828 Thomas Tredgold of England wrote: The most important object of Civil Engineering is to improve the means of production and of traffic in states, both for external and internal trade. It is applied in the construction and management of roads, bridges, railroads, aqueducts, canals, river navigation, docks and storehouses, for the convenience of internal intercourse and exchange; and in the construction of ports, harbor’s, moles, breakwaters and lighthouses; and in the navigation by artificial power for the purposes of commerce. It is applied to the protection of property where natural powers are the sources of injury, as by embankments for the defense of tracts of country from the encroachments of the sea, or the overflowing of rivers; it also directs the means of applying streams and rivers to use, either as powers to work machines, or as supplies for the use of cities and towns, or for irrigation; as well as the means of removing noxious accumulations, as by the drainage of towns and districts to... secure the public health. A modern description would include the production and distribution of energy, the development of aircraft and airports, the construction of chemical process plants and nuclear power stations, and water desalination. These aspects of civil engineering may be considered under the following headings: construction, transportation, maritime and hydraulic engineering, power, and public health. Construction Almost all civil engineering contracts include some element of construction work. The development of steel and concrete as building materials had the effect of placing design more in the hands of the civil engineer than the architect. The engineer’s analysis of a building problem, based on function and economics, determines the building’s structural design. Transportation Roman roads and bridges were products of military engineering, but the pavements of McAdam and the bridges of Perronet were the work of the civil engineer. So were the canals of the 18th century and the railways of the 19th, which, by providing bulk transport with speed and economy, lent a powerful impetus to the Industrial Revolution. The civil engineer today is concerned with an even larger transportation field—e.g., traffic studies, design of systems for road, rail, and air, and construction including pavements, embankments, bridges, and tunnels. Krk Bridge to Krk island, Croatia. Toffel California Aqueduct Aerial view of a section of the California Aqueduct. Ian Kluft Dams today are among the largest construction works, and design development is promoted by bodies like the International Commission on Large Dams. The design of large impounding dams in places with population centers close by requires the utmost in safety engineering, with emphasis on soil mechanics and stress analysis. Most governments exercise statutory control of engineers qualified to design and inspect dams. Dam Construction. Construction of a dam between Jianshui and Yuangyan, China. Biosphoto/SuperStock Power Civil engineers have always played an important part in mining for coal and metals; the driving of tunnels is a task common to many branches of civil engineering. In the 20th century the design and construction of power plants advanced with the rapid rise in demand for electric power, and nuclear power stations added a whole new field of design and construction, involving prestressed concrete pressure vessels for the reactor. Tsuruga Nuclear power plant, Ikata, Ehime prefecture, Shikoku, Japan. Drainage and liquid-waste disposal are closely associated with antipollution measures and the re-use of water. The urban development of parts of water catchment areas can alter the nature of runoff, and the training and regulation of rivers produce changes in the pattern of events, resulting in floods and the need for flood prevention and control. Modern civilization has created problems of solid-waste disposal from the manufacture of durable goods, such as automobiles and refrigerators, produced in large numbers with a limited life, to the small package, previously disposable, now often indestructible. The civil engineer plays an important role in the preservation of the environment, principally through design of works to enhance rather than to damage or pollute. Sanitary Landfill Two methods of constructing a sanitary landfill. (The top and bottom liners and the leachate collection systems are not shown.) Code of Ethics Fundamental Principles Civil engineers uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of the civil engineering profession by: 1. Using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare and the environment; 2. Being honest and impartial and serving with fidelity the public, their employer/employees and clients; 3. Striving to increase the competence and prestige of the civil engineering profession; and 4. Supporting the professional and technical societies of their disciplines. Fundamental Canons 1. Civil Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the performance of their duties. 2. Civil Engineer shall perform services only in areas of their competence. 2. Civil Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner. 3. Civil Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees and shall avoid conflicts of interest.  4. Civil Engineers shall build their professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with others. 5. Civil Engineers shall act in such a manner as to uphold and enhance the honor, integrity, and dignity of the civil engineering profession. 6. Civil Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those civil engineers under their supervision. Conflict of Interest - is a situation in which an individual has competing interests or loyalties, e.g. public official whose personal interest conflicts with his/her professional position. Sustainable Development - is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. - Economic development that is conducted without depletion of natural resources. Prime Professional - A professional commissioned by a building owner (may be an architect or engineer) to plan, design, and prepare detail drawings and specifications for bidding, awarding, and site reviewing a construction contract for a new or renovated facility. - The prime professional is usually responsible for engaging subconsultants and coordinating their work. Exercise: 1. Give the example of the following civil engineering sub-discipline photo a. Coastal engineering b. Structural engineering c. Geotechnical engineering d. Water engineering e. Transportation engineering 2. As a civil engineer, what will be your contribution to our society and environment? Explain in your own words. 3. In transportation engineering, describe the a. monorail b. light rail Reference: 1. Wikipedia 2. Manual of Professional Practice for Civil Engineers, PICE 3rd Edition October 2005,