Introduction to Culture and Communication PDF

Lesson No. 1 human labor, finance capital, information, and infectious diseases. Introduction to Culture and “Growth in world trade and the Communication...

Lesson No. 1 human labor, finance capital, information, and infectious diseases. Introduction to Culture and “Growth in world trade and the Communication business activity that accompanies it; dramatic improvements - Cross cultural communication is In telecommunications; ease of about the unique relationship data storage and transmission; between communication and culture. increased facility and opportunity for business and leisure travel.” If one finger is sore, the whole hand will hurt. - Chinese Proverb World Trade and International Business This ability to quickly move products, Our lives are all different and yet the same.- equipment, people, information, and Anne Fr securities around the world, with little concern for national or international borders, INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION has given rise to what are commonly called Present and Future transnational corporations. Since the dawn of civilization, when Two principal concerns of World the first humans formed tribal groups, Trade and International Business intercultural contact occurred whenever 1. There is a good likelihood that you people from one tribe encountered will someday work for a transnational members of another tribe and discovered organization or one of its subsidiaries. that they were different. 2. How the economy is managed and controlled. Definition of Globalization Globalization comprises “actions or TECHNOLOGY AND TRAVEL processes” that involve the entire - Technology will also expand the world and result in something ability of people throughout the world worldwide in scope. to connect with each other. Cameron sees globalization as “the ongoing integration of the world What’s the difference between economy.” Multicultural, Cross-Cultural and For Gannon, “Globalization refers to Intercultural communication? the increasing interdependence among national governments, Multicultural vs Cross-Cultural vs business firms, nonprofit Intercultural Communication organizations, and individual MULTICULTURAL COMMUNICATION citizens.” Multicultural communication means From an anthropological different cultures living together perspective, globalization is without much interaction in the same “worldwide interconnectedness, place. evidenced in global movements of INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION natural resources, trade goods, Intercultural communication focuses on productive interactions between  these cultures and although it can culture, but this culture is not occur between individuals with monolithic. common languages, it particularly Communication stands out when occurring across Communication is powerful: It brings different languages. companions to our side or scatters our rivals, reassures or alerts children, and CROSS-CULTURAL COMMUNICATION forges consensus or battle lines between Cross-cultural communication refers us. to the process of communicating and interacting with people from different The Functions of Communication cultural backgrounds. It involves understanding different cultural Communication allows you to gather norms, values, and beliefs, as well information about other people. as adapting one’s communication It enables you to learn about the style and behavior to effectively other person. engage with people from diverse It assists you in deciding how to backgrounds. present yourself. This information, collected by both verbal Defining terms in Cross-cultural and nonverbal messages, is essential in intercultural communication because in INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION many instances you are dealing with - Intercultural communication involves “strangers.” interaction between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol Communication helps fulfill systems are distinct enough to alter interpersonal needs the communication event. - Communication is one of the major THE DOMINANT CULTURE ways in which you fulfill a social - When we refer to a group of people component within yourself. This as a culture, we are applying the linking up with others allows you to term to the dominant culture found in experience a sense of inclusion, most societies. affection, and even control. - We prefer the term dominant culture because it clearly indicates that the Communication establishes personal group we are talking about is the identities one in power. Communication does much more CULTURAL COMMUNICATION than help you gather information and - Which focuses on the way in which meet your interpersonal needs. communication enables people to Communication also plays a role in create and negotiate their cultural determining and defining your identities within a cultural identity. community. Identity is so important to CO-CULTURES intercultural communication that we - As we have just pointed out, within later devote an entire chapter to the each society you will find a dominant topic.  mind-to-mind contact between Communication influences others people. Besides satisfying social needs and Communication is Contextual shaping identity, communication is the most We say communication is contextual widely used approach to satisfying what because “[it] occurs in particular communication scholars call instrumental situations or systems that influence goals: getting others to behave in ways we what and how we communicate and want. what meanings we attach to messages.” Communication defined in As Littlejohn states, Cross-Cultural “Communication always occurs in a - Communication is a dynamic context, and the nature of process in which people attempt to communication depends in large share their internal states with other measure on this context.” people through the use of symbols. A “prescription that indicates what behavior is obligated, preferred, or Principles of Communication prohibited.” Elements of Contextual Communication Communication is a Dynamic Process The words indicate that CULTURAL CONTEXT communication is an ongoing activity - The largest contextual component is and an unending process. the cultural setting in which the The phrase dynamic process communication is taking place. conveys the idea that sending and ENVIRONMENTAL CONTEXT receiving messages involves a host - Some simple introspection should of variables, all in operation at the tell you that people do not act the same time. same way in every environment. The concept of “process” also OCCASION means that you and your partner are - The occasion of a communication part of the dynamic process of encounter also controls the behavior communication. of the participants. Communication is Symbolic TIME OF In human communication, a symbol - The influence of time on is an expression that stands for or communication is so subtle that its represents something else. impact is often overlooked. Cultures Remember this: Because you as well as people use time to cannot directly access the internal communicate. thoughts of another person, you NUMBER OF PEOPLE must rely on and interpret their use - The number of people with whom of verbal and nonverbal symbols to you communicate also affects the represent those thoughts. flow of communication. The main reason communication is Communication is Self Reflective symbolic is that there is no direct - This characteristic of communication states that humans have the ability  to think about themselves, their The message from the other person communication partners, their has thus produced an observable messages, and the potential results response. of those messages, all at the same A little farther across the continuum time. are those messages that produce only a mental response. We learn to communicate As you proceed across the Your ability to communicate is a continuum, you come to responses complex interplay between what is in that are harder to detect. These are your genes (and does not have to be responses to messages you receive learned) and what you learn about made by imitating, observing, or communication during your lifetime. interacting with others. As Verderber and Verderber note, At the far end of the continuum are “Your interpersonal effectiveness responses to messages that are is a direct result of the language received unconsciously. That is, your skills and conversational scripts you body responds even if your cognitive learned.” processes are kept to a minimum. What you know at any one instant, Messages that you receive can alter and how you respond to that your hormonal secretions, your heart knowledge, are products of what you rate, or the temperature of your skin; have experienced. modify pupil size; and trigger a host The concept that we can always of other internal responses. These acquire new ideas and information chemical and biological responses should remind you that you can are not outwardly observable, and always learn things from other they are the most difficult ones to people. classify. Culture Communication has consequences Moving from communication to All of our messages, to one degree culture provides us with a rather or another, do something to seamless transition. someone else (as well as to us). Culture is communication and West and Turner underscore this communication is culture. same point by noting, “The process Culture consists of how we relate to nature of communication also means other people, how we think, how we that much can happen from the behave, and how we view the world. beginning of the conversation to the Defining Culture end. People may end up at a very The preceding discussion on the different place once the discussion topic of culture should enable you to begins.” see that culture is ubiquitous, Your responses to messages vary in complex, all pervasive, and most of degree and kind. It might help you to all difficult to define. try to picture your potential Culture is a set of human-made responses in the form of a objective and subjective elements continuum. that in the past have increased the  probability of survival and resulted in is learned. From the moment of birth satisfaction for the participants in an to the end of your life, you seek to ecological niche, and thus became defne the world that impinges on shared among those who could your senses. communicate with each other The confusion is in part overcome by because they had a common culture. As Ferraro observes, “The language and they lived in the same child who is born into any society time and place. -Triandis finds that the problems that confront Elements of Culture all people have already been solved by those who have lived before.” Remember this: Culture is learned in HISTORY a variety of ways and from a host of - Over two thousand years ago, the different sources. Roman orator Cicero remarked that Communication is not a Cure-all history provides guidance in daily Yet it would be a mistake to think life. communication is a cure-all. Many VALUES problems can’t be solved by talk - Values are another feature of every alone. culture. According to Peoples and Communication by itself won’t end Bailey, values are “critical to the hunger, abuses of human rights maintenance of culture as a whole around the globe, racism, intimate because they represent the qualities partner violations, or physical that people believe are essential to diseases. continuing their way of life.” - As Macionis notes, values are LESSON 2 “culturally defined standards of INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION desirability, goodness, and beauty that serve as broad guidelines for Language and Culture social living. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Development of SOCIAL ORGANIZATION the Hypothesis - Another feature found in all cultures Many academic disciplines refer to is what we call “social the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (also organizations.” These organizations known as the Whorfian thesis) when (sometimes referred to as social accounting for the differences in systems or social structures) languages across cultures (J. B. represent the various social units Carroll, 1956). contained within the culture. Each of us lives not in the midst of LANGUAGE the whole world but only in that part - Language is yet another feature that of the world that our language is common to all cultures. permits us to know. Thus, the world Characteristics of Culture as each of us knows it is Culture is Learned predetermined by the language of We begin with perhaps that most our culture. And the differences important characteristic of culture: it between languages represent basic  differences in the worldview of symbol (i.e., a logo) to prominently diverse cultures. identify a product or create a widely There are two examples that support the recognized image. hypothesis: THEORIES OF LANGUAGE as a 1. There is no universal sign language. reflection of cultural values 2. In fact, several hundred exist. High and Low Context Cultures don’t have the language to High and low context are terms used speak of changes in their to describe different communication environment. styles and how information is Vocabulary conveyed in a culture or society. - Vocabulary is the list of words and In high-context cultures, such as their meanings. many Asian, Middle Eastern, and Grammar and Syntax Latin American cultures, much of the - The second level of the Sapir-Whorf communication is based on shared hypothesis is Grammar and Syntax. understanding, unspoken cues, and Whorf felt that grammar had an even inferences. In this cultures, people greater influence than vocabulary. rely on context, nonverbal cues, and prior knowledge to interpret messages. LANGUAGE Variation Low-context cultures, like much of Western Europe and North America, ACCENT tend to emphasize explicit and direct - Accents are simply variations in communication. In these cultures, pronunciation that occur when people value clear and people are speaking the same straightforward language, where language. meaning is primarily conveyed DIALECT through the words spoken or written. - Dialects are distinguished by differences in vocabulary, grammar, High and Low Power Distance and even punctuation. Power distance, or how a culture ARGOT accepts status differentials among - Argot is a private vocabulary the population, can also be exhibited peculiar to a co-culture or group. in a country’s language. SLANG High and low power distance are - Slang designates those terms, used terms used to describe the degree to in instances of extreme informality, which a society accepts and expects which serve as a means of marking power and authority to be distributed social or linguistic identity.” unequally. It reflects the way in Branding which individuals in a culture - Corporate marketing has created a perceive and navigate social phenomenon, referred to as hierarchies and status differentials. branding, that frequently transcends In cultures with high power distance, language differences. Branding is such as many Asian, African, or the use of a corporate name or Latin American cultures, there is a  greater acceptance and expectation The study of intercultural of significant power gaps between communication is how identity individuals or groups. People in influences and guides expectations these cultures generally respect about your own and others’ social authority figures, follow hierarchical roles, and provides guidelines for structures, and exhibit deference to your communication interaction with those in higher positions. others. cultures with low power distance, Explaining Identity like many Western European and The identification of communications North American cultures, tend to of a shared system of symbolic have less pronounced power gaps verbal and nonverbal behavior that and a more egalitarian approach. In are meaningful to group members these cultures, there is a higher who have a sense of belonging and value placed on equality, individual who share traditions, heritage, rights, and questioning authority. language, and similar norms of Language in such cultures may be appropriate behavior. less formal, with more casual forms Lustig and Koester look at cultural of address and a focus on inclusivity. identity as “one’s sense of belonging Individualism and Collectivism to a particular cultural or ethnic Whether a culture emphasizes group.” individuals or social relations can Ting-Toomey and Chung see also be examined through the cultural identity as “the emotional language they use. significance that we attach to our Individualism refers to societies or sense of belonging or affiliation with cultures that prioritize the needs and the larger culture.” For Klyukanov, goals of individuals over the “cultural identity can be viewed as collective group. membership in a group in which all Collectivism refers to societies or people share the same symbolic cultures that prioritize the needs and meanings.” goals of the collective group over Identity is dynamic and multiple. individuals. HUMAN IDENTITIES Culture and the Individual: Cultural - Are those perceptions of self that Identity link you to the rest of humanity and According to Pinney, a principal set you apart from other life forms objective of one’s adolescent years SOCIAL IDENTITIES Are represented by is the formation of an identity, and the various groups you belong to, such as “those who fail to achieve a secure race, ethnicity, occupation, age, hometown, identity are faced with identity and other. confusion, a lack of clarity about who PERSONAL IDENTITY Arises from those they are and what their role is in life.” things that set you apart from other in-group The unsettled world that we all live in members and mark you as special or is in part influenced by adherence to unique. varying perceptions of identity. Hall offers a similar categorization of identity. He says, “Each of us has three levels of identity that, depending on the - Ethnicity or ethnic identity is derived context, may or may not be salient in our from a sense of shared heritage, interactions with others. These three levels history, traditions, values, similar are personal, relational, and communal.” behaviors, area of origin, and in 1. Personal identities are those that some instances, language. make you unique and distinct from GENDER IDENTITY others. Gender identity is quite different 2. Relational identities are a product from biological sex or sexual identity. Gender refers to how a particular of your relationships with other culture differentiates masculine and people, such as husband/wife, feminine social roles, biological sex teacher/student, or or sexual identity. executive/manager. Ting-Toomey tells us, “Gender 3. Communal identities are “typically identity, in short, refers to the associated with large-scale meanings and interpretations we communities, such as nationality, hold concerning our self-images and ethnicity, gender, or religious or expected other-images of political affiliation.” ‘femaleness’ and ‘maleness.’ Gudykunst provides a further Gender identity refers to the ways classification of that type of identity, particular cultures differentiate which is considered important during between masculine and feminine intercultural communication. roles. Our social identities can be based NATIONAL IDENTITY on our memberships in demographic - National identity refers to your categories (e.g., nationality, ethnicity, nationality. The majority of people gender, age, social class), the roles associate their national identity with we play (e.g., student, professor, the nation where they were born. parent), our membership in formal or REGIONAL IDENTITY informal organizations (e.g., political - The cultural contrasts among these parties, social clubs), our regions may be manifested through associations or vocations (e.g., ethnicity, language, accent, dialect, scientists, artists, gardeners), or our customs, food, dress, or different memberships in stigmatized groups historical and political legacies. (e.g., homeless, people with AIDS) ORGANIZATIONAL IDENTITY Selected Social Identities - The cultural contrasts among these RACIAL IDENTITY regions may be manifested through - Race is a social construct arising ethnicity, language, accent, dialect, from efforts to categorize people into customs, food, dress, or different different groups. According to historical and political legacies. Collier, race has been used by academic, government, and political PERSONAL IDENTITY agencies to identify groups of people Personal identity consists of those as outsiders. characteristics that set one apart from ETHNIC IDENTITY others in his or her in-group, those things that make one unique, and how one sees people in the wrong groups, when oneself. Cultural influences also come into we incorrectly describe the group play when determining personal identity. norm, when we evaluate the group Markus and Kitayama report that “people in rather than simply describing it, different cultures have strikingly different when we confuse the stereotype construals of the self, of others, and of the with the description of a particular interdependence between the two. individual, and when we fail to CYBER AND FANTASY IDENTITY modify the stereotype based on our The Internet allows you to quickly actual observations and experience. and easily access and exchange Four additional reasons why stereotypes information on a worldwide basis. hamper intercultural communication: According to Suler, some online Stereotypes are a kind of filter; they groups require participants to only allow in information that is assume an “imaginary persona,” and consistent with information already infatuation with these invented held by the individual. In this way, identities can become so strong they what might be the truth is never can “take a life of their own.” given a chance. Stereotyping It is not the act of classifying that - When confronted with a lack of creates intercultural problems; familiarity or similarity, we often tend rather, it is assuming that all to stereotype. culture-specific information applies Stereotypes Defined to all individuals from a particular Stereotyping is a complex form of cultural group. categorization that mentally Stereotypes also keep you from organizes your experiences with, being successful as communicators and guides your behavior toward, a because they are oversimplified, particular group of people. It exaggerated, and overgeneralized. becomes a means of organizing Stereotypes are resistant to your images into fixed and simple change.because stereotypes are categories that you use to represent usually developed early in life and an entire collection of people. are repeated and reinforced by the Stereotypes can be positive or in-group, they grow in intensity each negative. Stereotypes that refer to a passing year. In fact, contact large group of people as lazy, between in-groups and out-groups coarse, vicious, or moronic are often only support the stereotype. obviously negative. Prejudice Stereotypes and Cultural - In the broadest sense, prejudices Communication are deeply held negative feelings Adler reminds us of the harmful associated with a particular group. effect stereotypes have on These sentiments often include intercultural communication when anger, fear, aversion, and anxiety. she notes: Prejudice may target people of a Stereotypes become particular: counterproductive when we place Social class  Sex social hardships, that adversely Sexual orientation affect the dominant group. Age Political affiliation Race Ethnicity Prejudice may target people of a Prejudice may target people of a particular: particular: Martin Luther King, Jr.’s dream that children “will be judged not by the EGO-DEFENSIVE FUNCTION color of their skin but by the content - The ego-defensive function of of their character” prejudice allows people to hold a Vora and Vora point out, “Both prejudice without having to admit blatant and very subtle forms of they possess such beliefs about a racism permeate organizational and member of an out-group. personal levels of our society, from VALUE-EXPRESSIVE FUNCTION governmental, business, and - We see people maintaining the educational institutions to our value-expressive function of everyday interactions.” prejudice when they believe their Racism Defined attitudes are expressing the highest Racism, in many ways, is an and most moral values of the extension of stereotyping and prejudice. culture. Racism is the belief in the inherent KNOWLEDGE FUNCTION superiority of a particular race. It denies the - When carrying out the knowledge basic equality of humankind and correlates function of prejudice, persons are ability with physical composition. Thus, it able to categorize, organize, and assumes that success or failure in any construct their perceptions of other societal endeavor will depend upon genetic people in a manner that makes endowment rather than environment and sense to them—even if the access to opportunity. sense-making is not accurate. Defining Ethnocentrism Causes of Prejudice Ethnocentrism is the notion that SOCIETAL SOURCES one’s own culture is superior to any other. It - A great deal of prejudice is built into is the idea that other cultures should be the major organizations and measured by the degree to which they live institutions of a society. up to our cultural standards. We are ethnocentric when we view other cultures MAINTAINING SOCIAL IDENTITY through the narrow lens of our own culture - It creates a bond between or social position. individuals and their culture. SCAPEGOATING - Scapegoating occurs when a Characteristics of Ethnocentrism particular group of people, usually a minority, are singled out to bear the LEVELS OF ETHNOCENTRISM: blame for certain events or Positive - natural culture. circumstances, such as economic or Negative - you partially take on an evaluative dimension. Extreme negative - you perceive your culture to be the most powerful one. Ethnocentrism is Universal Anthropologists generally agree that “most people are ethnocentric” and that “some ethnocentrism seems necessary as a kind of glue to hold a society together. Ethnocentrism Contributes to Culture Another reason ethnocentrism is so pervasive is that it provides members of a culture with feelings of identity and belonging. As Rusen notes, “Belonging to this group, to this nation, or civilization, gives them self-esteem, makes them proud of the achievements of their own people.”