CC200 Notes: Youth Crime and Legislation PDF

***TOPIC: Historical Context**\ ***Black** - what is posted in MyLS\ **Green** - what is added to Lecture The most peak of youth crime mostly comes from academic research. Statistics Canada is also credible. **Youths are getting more harshly treated than Adults in Canada than the States**. 1. Youths as a social group - receive more negative attention than any other - 80% are under the age of 25 2. They are judged - as troubling and troubled, problematic If you were born anytime after 1964, here's a laundry list of things that fucked you up 3. Media: **The idea is that young people are a problem**, not that the things they do (their behaviour) is a problem. 95% of the crime stories is that kids are violent **MEDIA AND THE POLITICS OF YOUTH CRIME**\ Youth Crime is 'Political' - reporting have influenced politics and policy that Youths need to be more observed. They are **socially constructed** - the way they are told without context makes it look as if youths are the problem. **Media drives public opinion** The media try to solve the problem - e.g YOA - **Young Offenders Act** **REALITY OF YOUTHS (TEENS AND YA)** 1. Teens are different from adults: 18 - 24 as adults but are still **developing mentally. The (pre-frontal cortex) is the last thing to develop between mid late 20s.** 2. Responsible for planning, prioritizing, etc. 3. Teens are often excluded from the adult world 4. Prospects are diminishing - I.e baby boomers did better than their parents, Gen X Milly not so much, and of course Gen Z are worse. 5. Lack of mental support for young people **SOCIAL REALITY (TEENS)** 1. **Social status for teens** - they have **no power or anatomy until the age of 18**. You can at 16 but have to go through court to emancipate from your parents. 2. **Political Power** - they have none, cause adults make the rules 3. **Contributions are devalued** - it's legal to pay them less; than when you are 18. 4. **Distrust from adults** - **the court is less lenient** - that the court needs to get tougher on them and what they are doing is against the law. **ECONOMIC REALITY** 1. Poverty - indigenous youths and children are in greater risk of getting fired, not getting a job, etc. 2. 20% - 2016\ Dropped to 10% - at 2021 3. Baby boomers - only 7% graduated\ For Gen Z - work more, save more, more debt, less time to save, etc. May change when the baby boomers retire. Political - that disadvantage is getting worse instead of better.\ \ **2 OPPOSITE SIDES - YOUTH JUSTICE**\ \ **Youth Advocate** - focuses on the youth or child warfare approach. They are concerned with youths who deal with problems at home, conflict at home, problems at school, with friends, peers, advising; unemployment, poverty, etc. **View Youth** - in need of help/guidance - they need help with things that are out of their control. **Law and Order** - crime control - focuses on criminals - you get to do the crime you get to do the time. **Punishment** is a way to deal with young people. They view youths as enemy to adults in need of punishment **YOA** - **kept sending them to prison with an idea that it will change things** **It wasn't helping out.** **YOA** both sides - extra judicial methods - try to keep kids out of prison. Prison being used as punishment that adults don't get. That is why we have the **Juvenile Justice System**. **SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF YOUTH AND ADOLESCENCE** G. **Stanley - a Psychologist - coined adolescence at 1904** Anybody with Youthful body, an adolescence, teenager, etc. Low self control - Increased to stress Teenagers - **was coined in the 1940's** - as a way to make money out of (consumer products). **Teenager** - The interim stage between childhood and adulthood - as own phase of development. **[SOCIOLOGIAL CHANGES:]** **TWO MOST SIGNIFICANT CHANGES** **Industrial Revolution** - Work before the IR was at home - you were fit to work ages 7-8. Kids were sent to apprentices to work with someone else if not with parents at the farm. 1. Changes in Economy - agricultural to industrial 2. Changes in the System - home to factory It relied on simple labour - getting children to do tough work, and most died. 1\. Kids and women were more cheaper than men 2\. Technology advancement - less labour power 3\. Competition - wages dropped. Kids were more hired for cheap to work in the city. 4\. State - to create laws and make it legal for kids to work and they were killed and harmed and it stopped to save them from that competition and risks. **CONSEQUENCES** **Industrial Revolution:** 1. The law displaced children - they were disconnected from their homes, family and didn't know where they lived. They weren't paid so they had to steal and pick pocket to eat. 2. Social Policy - U.K policy - kids were shipped to CA to work on farms, some girls became domestic workers, nannies, cleaners, etc. 3. Canada was a lot more agricultural than the UK or France From **1860-1920**, 100,000 kids/teens were exported to Canada **Compulsory Education** - being forced to go to school. A way to deal with orphan kids - it started in the 1800s - to teach them all at one time, maths, reading, writing, etc. **8 was the maximum that boys could go to school - Girls could stay longer** **Ontario was the first province to extend the age past 8** Parents were threatened with fines to have their kids shipped. **Extended it to 12, and other provinces by 1910.** CA/US - use schools to socialize new immigrants coming from the UK, Europe. They weren't age segregated - they were all in one room **And in the 1940s became segregated.** It helped flourish the separate youth culture - that was separate from adults. **In CA it had increased compulsory attendance to age 16** If you had a particular certificate to leave school earlier. All Ont kids were required to go to school, but at 14+ could go to work in farms, home or other, if for subsistence. In **1970** - exemptions were removed. **JUVENILE DELINQUENCY:** CA vs UK - Created industrial schools to reform schools Objective was to keep kids out of trouble and reform 'deviant' ways. **It was more of a prison than a school.** **Problems:** 1. They seldom reformed youths 2. They had lack of adequate provisions - shoes, clothes, etc 3. Structure Institutionalized - like a prison - they weren't meant to go outside, or play as much, etc, until told to 4. Skills learned weren't transferable 5. High rates of abuse - kids were bullied. **Delinquency** - when teenagers are outside the rules and laws - like truancy - skipping school, drinking, smoking, sexual activity, etc. Crime (Criminal Act) - for adults there is no criminal record but for youths they can. **TEENAGE DELINQUENCY AND CRIME:** **Actus-reus** - committing a crime or unable to commit a crime **Mens-rea** - the mental intent of committing a crime **14 and older** - you understand good and bad behaviors. **You can get an adult sentence.** **Under 7** - they still believe that **they don't know their behaviors are bad.** **13/09/2024** Avoid the CJS - it should be about Youths committing the crime Define your crime in the intro Each source should begin by identifying authors in apa Identify by authors last name (agar, coupland 2013) Findings - focus on what they found, the type of youth that commit the crime - main question. Homicide - mostly boys commit. DON'T FORGET Allen and Superle - cite in text where the info is coming from Quotes - should not speak for me, require page no or table no. E.g Bell, 2015, p.76 Don't use short words like - don't, won't, etc Do not include the word society Et al. With 3 or more authors **18/09/2024** **TOPIC: Youth Crime Legislation** **Juvenile Delinquents Act (JDA) - 1908:** **Province:** regulate, age as young as 7 **Founders**: They were focused on helping kids and believe that they were in need of guidance not punishment - J.J. Kelso and W.L. Scott **Medical Model** - CA System offer treatment based program where they can be helped - mostly young people. **Doctrine of Parens Patriae -** the state becomes the parent to learn the best interest of the child**.** Parents could also be held accountable of their child\'s behaviour Crime: The reason why children commit crime due to social events - e.g Under the JDA they were referred to as Delinquents - which is separate from criminal acts as: A. Any provision of the Criminal Code B. Any other federal, provincial or municipal by-law C. Committing any acts of immorality - e.g smoking, drinking, fornicating, etc. D. Based on: the need of guidance because of the parents inadequacy **WHY IS THE JDA UNIQUE:** 1. Status offence - age dependent - based on your status and engaging in those behaviors were seen as an offence. 2. Truancy - skipping school - which can go on your criminal record 3. Examples - drinking, smoking, sexual immorality, they see that these acts needed to be corrected **GIRLS WERE MORE LIKELY TO COME INTO THE SYSTEM FOR CRIME** **AND BOYS WERE MORE LIKELY TO COME INTO THE SYSTEM OF BEING ARRESTED BY THE PD** 1. **Court:** all private, no parents, etc 2. **Judge and PO:** You were treated as guilty, can't ask for a lawyer, etc. 3. **Sentencing:** It had no maximum. The state was still taking care of you till 21 - surveillance watching. Detention - last resort Probation - tailored to individual **KEY COMPONENTS** 1. The open court principle - wanting the public to access reports 2. Focuses on reforming the youth delinquents, which is done by the probation officer. You had to do whatever they tell you to do, including getting grades if not will be locked up. 3. Sentences - young people have the same sentencing as adults 4. Once labeled as a Juvenile Delinquent, even at 18, you can still be under the control of the state till 21 5. Parents could be charged and go to prison for misconduct of kids 6. Age of Delinquency were set by the province. Most up to 15 years 16 and 17 years commit more crime than other ages. **NEWS REPORTING JUVENILE CRIME: JDA** 1. The court was closed - no one was aware that kids were charged with guilt even those who weren't involved. 2. Reporting: early with police if allowed. **CRITICISM OF THE JDA** 1. Provincial variations 2. Prison population - started increasing for minor offenses. 3. Sentencing is interminate to age 21 4. Lack of due process and court power - the civil started focusing on these acts. No way to fight the accusations against kids. Kids were viewed as property 5. The police viewed that JDA was to lenient and kids were being stubborn still 6. Uniformity - lacking. Status offenses became a problem. **MODIFYING THE JDA** 1. Recognizing that young people should have their own rights, legal representations, etc. 1959 - declared rights of kids 1970s - 80s - Canadian Bill of Rights & *Canadian Charter of Rights & Freedom*). Legal rights were their major focus. 1. Status offenses - coming under fire because kids were labeled for offenses that adults weren't. 2. Incorrigibility is not in legislation anymore - MAY COME OUT ON MIDTERMS 3. Due Process - was at the forefront - (Canadian Rights and Freedom - CCR&F). 4. Uniformity - for age and sentencing - 12 to 17 years old. Anyone under the age 12 were pretty innocent. 5. Elimination of status offenses - some were as maximum 6. Court was open and have a legal representation **PRINICIPLES** 1. Parents were no longer held responsible for their child/children 2. Increased the involvement - letting parents go to court, not arresting kids and bringing them into custody 3. Created inequalities in the Justice System for people who had conflicts in their homes 4. Indigenous Youth received harsher treatments and sentences on the belief that parents were inadequate. **NEWS REPORTING UNDER THE JDA** 1. Report crime and how the system deals with youths were now open 2. Rules - not labeling youths publicly so that they can rehabilitate themselves before adulthood. 3. The Press could inform causes of why youths commit crime. 4. The Media response was to sensationalize it - that kids are cold blooded killers with lack of control. **CRITICISM** Started right away 1. Maximum sentence was 3 years, which was not long enough for a young person. 2. Before they were kept in youth court, but now it's open court. Treating them as adults. **REMEDY (Amendments)** 1991/92 was the Amendment: 1. Max sentencing became 5 years 2. Transfers to adult court 3. They increased max sentence to 10 years - 1st degree murder and 7 years for 2nd degree murder 4. Transfers to adult court for Presumptive Offenses and get treated with other rights like an adult. **YOA - YOUTH CRIME BECOMES POLITICAL** 1. In 1993, first time Youth Crime was used in political platform 2. Parties - Reform, PC, NDP & Liberals 3. Youth Crime did increase in the 1980s and 1990s. Also increased for adults. Policy Driven - lots of kids were brought into the System. When we change the rules - eg a school shooting, which is dealt by the PD and not the school 4. The Media fueled political and fear **CRITICISM PART 2** 1. Sentences are too lenient and not tough on young people 2. The reality was that they started using excessive use of the court and prisons for crimes that adults were not convicted for - especially less than 18 3. Media Reporting continued to increase focusing on those violent offenses E. g Joyriding, Robbery - new crimes, new schemes. Was pretty criticized that the YOA didn't last long **YOUTH CRIMINAL JUSTICE ACT - 2003** Purpose of the YJS (Youth Justice System): 1. To protect the public through crime prevention, rehabilitation and meaningful consequences. 2. Community based alternatives - dealing with these youths as fast as possible. 3. Reduces for minor offenses - custody should be saved for more serious crime. 4. Kept the same principles introduced by the YOA but created different system **YCJA - UNIQUENESS** 5. The use of conferences and extra-judicial measures - which is outside the court - keep minors out of court. It is mandated that police need to use more judicial measures. 6. No young person be transferred to adult court. Anyone between 12-18 should be kept in Youth Prison. 7. Custody (Prison) - they changed the time and custody that one-third to be community supervision (planned reintegration) - heavily supervised. 8. Restorative Justice Principles were introduced into the communities to restore harm. 9. Reparation - making amends for the crime and being held responsible that is connected to a crime. 10. Reintegration - the community as part of your sentence. 11. Diversion - part of the act to remove young people from getting into court. **NEWS REPORTING YCJA** 1. Court open - no identification with exception 2. 16 and 17 could be labeled publicly and given an adult sentence 3. Quebec took the Federal Government to court **AMENDMENTS** 1. Bill C-25 (Nuun Inquiry): able to hold a child in detention before they go to court. \- Increasing penalties to deter them from crime. 2. Bill C-4 (Sebastian's Law): increasing adult sentences for adult offenders \- Added more offenses that could get 5 years in prison. 3. Bill C-10 (Safe Streets and Communities Act): Vastky changed the nature of the YCJA \- Allowing more people into the System. **MODELS OF JUVENILE JUSTICE** **WELFARE MODEL:** 1. Main tenet - young individuals must be addressed 2. Medical model - helping youth with addiction, mental health, etc 3. View of Crime - environmental sources **COMMUNITY CHANGE MODELS AND RESTORATIVE JUSTICE** 1. Focus was to repair harm 2. View of crime - they saw it as violation of people and the victim 3. Restorative Justice - it impacts the victim, offender and community and they need to repair the community. **JUSTICE MODEL** 1. Interfering with peoples freedom - placed under arrest for violating legal rights of citizens 2. Focuses on Legal rights, protect the people from the power of the states 3. View of crime as an free will and individual responsibility - to repair the harm they've caused, but more of fixing relationships. 4. Intervention - sanction immediately. **CRIME CONTROL MODEL** 1. Protection of society and law abiding citizens 2. Responsibility of the state to maintain order in society 3. Sentencing - punishment and harsh detrerat 4. View of crime as free will 5. Intervention - incapacitation from interacting with public - put in prison **WELFARE MODEL** 1. Decided that the best interest of children till age 21 2. Treatment and Sentences: 3. Status offenses: 4. Without legal counsel: **YOA** 1. Began the Justice Model - due process 2. Later crime control model increased punishment 3. The JDA was entirely based on the Welfare of the Youth Criminal Justice. **20/09/2024** **TOPIC: MEASURING AND COUNTING** **MEASURING YOUTH CRIME:** 1. Age of responsibility from 12-17, and changed the JDA to as young as 7. It is Arbitrary. 2. The most violent age group of youth were toddlers - 28 to 29 months. Why? Because they haven't learned communication and language skills. 3. Pattern - a few kids come into the system at age 12 or 13. 16 and 17 are more likely to commit crimes than 12-13. **STUDYING YOUTH CRIME** 1. **Quantitative Research** - official statistics - collected by the Government. \- UCR - collect from the Police, collect data from the courts, and then corrections collect data on the population that they are responsible for. \- They are collected Annually \- **Self report surveys - tended to be collected in schools, and University level** \- Victimization - asking people their experiences as a victim. Done as General Social Survey - done every 5 to 6 years. 2. **Qualitative Research** - When researches are done academically in the real world. They spend time with the people that they wanna research. Typically Interviews. 1. **Official Statistics** - CJS: Police, courts and corrections All is collected by Statistics Canada - collects them annually by law 2. **Uniform Crime Reporting** - It is reported to the police 3. **Police Discretion** - have the ability to choose who to arrest or not Police are less likely to give Youths a warning - higher surveillance. In the States it is collected by the **FBI.** **STATISTICS AS A RATE:** 1. Standardize - all countries practice this - 2. The Rate - 100,000 in population 3. **Calculated - the number of crime divided by the population multiplied by 100,000** 4. Youth Homicide - 1.6 in 2018 \- 1.41 in 2019 \- 2.17 in 2020 (Increased for adults too) \- 1.05 in 2021 **STRENGHTS OF UCR** 1. We can compare them overtime 2. We can also compare across place Consistency - year to year - cause its collected in the same way 3. Some crimes are reliable in the same way - Homicide is the most reliable statistics we have It gets more reported and investigated. **PROBLEM WITH THE UCR** **Crime Funnel or Dark figure of Crime** - how we need to look at the numbers and see that they are not 1. Unknown number of Crime - we can guess and use estimates because it's not all reported. 2. Break and Entry are more common - 2/3 3. Maybe nothing got stolen 9/10 4. Charged - able to identify which is most times not possible 1/8 5. Prosecuted - 1/20 6. Convicted - 1/23 will be convicted - maybe the evidence is not good enough to go to court 7. Sentenced - 1/43 1. Crime reported are to the police - if not to the police it doesn't count or get reported 2. Sometimes the definition of crime can change - e.g first degree murder, sexual assault in 1983 3. Police Discretion - what they decide to bring to the system - sometimes the police seek them out themselves, e.g drug use, gang-related activity. **SELF-REPORT SURVEYS** 1. Official data removed from the source. 2. They started being skeptical and examine system bias 3. Origin was in middle school and later added high school. At some point they were only looking at boys, cause they thought girls didn't commit crime. **FINDINGS:** 4. Awareness of crime is a bit smaller. The crimes were a lot greater than police stats of what boys did. 5. Police attention - class difference - class and race, not acts. Lower-class were doing a lot of thefts. In the working class, boys were more likely to come into the system. 6. Criminologists say that when looking into statistics, the UCR is a reflection of police work not crime **SELF REPORT IMPORTANCE** 1. They provide more accurate rate of crime and the types - and more of them are minor than serious. Most report damaging of property. 2. Criminal vs Non-Criminal - girls report and get less crime than boys. Girls get treated more harshly than boys. 3. Youth crime is not class-based (only that boys commit more crimes than girls). Males are reported to commit more crimes. **Questions** - they ask during interviews are more about property, fighting, hitting, assault, violent crimes, drug use and demographic information. (age, gender, occupation of parents, etc) **There is police bias** - I.e who they decide to arrest vs give warnings too \- Most admitted was damaging property in some kind of way (Vandalism). **WEAKNESSES** 1. Absent - kids skipping schools and omitting truants. The number of kids missing might commit more crime. 2. Rely on memory - and that memory fades or changes overtime. 3. They may be concealment - young people will not report, rather they'll hide it. Youths tend to be fairly truthful with less information about themselves. **VICTIMIZATION SURVEY:** 1. Canada Social Surveys 2. The respondent - has to be 15 years or older to be able to answer for his/her household. Few youths answer. 3. Questions include:. Personal victimization. Very, worst crime. Criminal justice response if reported to the police. Attitudes toward CJS - Police get better ratings, worse ratings go to the lawyers. 4. Mostly focus on adults - under-reported by youths. 5. When people report crimes to police, young people and adults have the same reason not to report it. Worse crimes tend to get reported. 6. Victims and offenders - for most crimes tend to be in the same age bracket (intra-age), some also (intra-race and ethinicity). **STRENGHTS:** 1. Useful - monitor perceptions 2. Under-reported - most sexual assaults of younger people tend to get more reported 3. Why people don't report - it is not just important enough **Victimization WEAKNESES** 1. Memories tend to fail - or you may forget 2. Interpretation of being a victim - if they didn't know that they were a victim they won't report it. A lot of people don't know the laws. 3. Reporting certain people are more likely to occur. 4. They refer to it as Forward Telescoping - remembering events as more recent than they are. E.g, a crime of a year ago being reported today. \- Crime and Victimization survey - may not always catch that. It is intra-age (same age) - tend to be sexual assault, incest and abuse. \- Highest rates of victimization - are 16 to 24 years old. And males are more likely to commit and be a victim of crime \- Higest if youths are taken out are 18 to 24 years \- By sex: Males are more likely to commit crimes \- Women tend to get victimized by sexual assault and personal theft. **QUALITATIVE (OBSERVATIONAL) STUDIES/RESEARCH** 1. Ethics requirement - have to reduce harm, and informed consent. 2. Ethnographic - Thrasher - a guy who spent time with gangs and interviewing them, wrote a book that got published in 1927 **Advantages** 3. Details: cultural details that you do not get from surveys 4. You can talk to young people who may not be able to fill out a survey 5. Setting - it's good cause it's not in a lab, so it is in the nature. 6. Drawbacks are always small - hard to get a large sample 7. Sample size is small 8. Young people are harder to access, especially at the age of 18, you are restricted to the questions you can ask. 9. They could be a danger to researchers in research to crime. If you are there and a crime is reported, you can be responsible as well. 10. Generalizations - cannot e made to a larger population. Self report surveys provides the best measures of minor crimes **SOCIAL DIMENSIONOF CRIME (Correlates of crime)** 1. Correlate: association between variables (vary together). Correlation does not mean causation 2. Correlates of crime: variables associated with crime (usually social) Most common crimes - 3. Official data say that young males tend to commit more crime (16-24) 4. Rates of victimization that targets males 5. Self Report and victimization surveys - back this up, those under 30 report more than older adults. **AGE EXPLANATIONS** 1. Youths and ability - they have physical strength and agility to commit crime. 2. Greater surveillance by police that expect trouble from them 3. Lifestyle - routine activity theory that life puts you at risk to be a victim of crime, and more opportunity to commit crime. 4. There are exceptions - WCC are more committed by older people, and drug use are similar to all age groups. **SEX** Is the best predictor Self report surveys show that males are more likely to report more crimes \- Girls - pink crimes - prostitution, theft, drugs - F in System \- Youths - M - theft, mischief, drugs, admin, assault. F - theft, assault, admin, mischief and drugs. 25/09/2024 TOPIC: CONT'D SEX: Sex (Gender) is the best predictor of crime. Overly men commit more crime. Canada does not systematically collect data (except homicide - indigenous vs non-indigenous) Over-representation in CJS (Indig) \- Accused - 5-9x v, 4-8x p Categories of Crime: 1. Property crimes - against property - take or damages with or without consent Eg theft, break and enter, arson, auto theft, possession of stolenn property and mischief. 2. Violent crimes - a crime against a person, physical or without persons consent Eg, assault, homicide, sexual assault, forcible confinment, kidnapping, abduction, extortion, harassment, robbery 3. Administration of Justice - after charges, againt the court. Eg, breach probation, failure to comply with an order, fail to appear. 4. Other criminal code: Do not fit in other categories. Eg, disturb the peace, weapons violation, prostitution. 5. Federal Statutes: Drug offenses (CDASA, Cannabis Act) and YCJA. Example: Drug use and dealing, production/manufacturing, trafficking. 6. Traffic Criminal Code: Traffic, considered criminal, others are prov by-laws Eg, impaired driving, dangerous operation of vehicle, failure to stay at scene of an accident, driving with suspended license. Youth Crime:\ 1997-2007 16-17 years old (45%) 14-15 years old (35%) 12-13 years old (20%) Property and violent crimes peak at 15 years old. Most common crime committed by Youth is Theft - 960 of 1000. **Manitoba, SK and Alberta tend to have higher youth crimes** Private residence is where most crime happens both adults and youths. **Schools**: 12% of crime. By most youths, the most common crime in schools are CA possession of 23% and common assault of 22%. Youth drug related crime is more in schools MISCHIEF: A crime that deals with the destruction or damage of property, eg vandalism, graffiti. Render property: dangerous, inoperative, useless or ineffective. Obstruct or interfere with lawful use (or enjoyment/operation of) Obstruct or interfere with person who is already in law (or enjoying/operating of). Homicde and attempted - 3% per 100,000 in 2014 ASSAULT: 1. Directly or indirectly apply force intentionally without their consent 2. Attempts of threatens the use of force (inc use of weapon) 3. Cannot impede movement CONSENT: To assault (can consent, fighting), (adult vs youth). Youth - rarely given (both are charged). Eg, of consent to a fight is: spitting, pushing, shoving "take it outside." You cannot provoke someone into hitting you and have them charged. ASSAULT (3 LEVELS) 1. Lvl 1 - Common assault (threat of force, impede movement). Most common assault and violent crime. 2. Assault 2 - presence of a weapon; bodily harm or threat with weapon. 3. Level 3 - Aggregated assault - severe wounds, maims, disfigures or endangers life of victim. SEXUAL ASSAULT: 1983 changes (rape removed, gender neutral, spousal). \- Definition (legal): threat or use of force in execution of sexual act, without the persons consent. CONSENT: Age of consent for sex (protection): legally consent to sexual activity (all) Exceptions ('close in age' or 'peer group') - 14 to 15 can consent with partner lower than 1 year older, 12-13 can consent if less than 2 years older). SEXUAL ASSAULT: Level 1 1. SA Lvl 1: non-sonsenual for sexual purpose (kissing, touching, oral sex, etc) 2. Includes: minor or no physical injury to victim can incl penetration 3. Proportion: 90-95% (2021 Y-95%) SEXUAL ASSAULT: Level 2 and 3 1. Sexual assault 2: presence of weapon; bodily harm Includes: mutliple offenders (gang rapes). typically penetration; 2. Proportion: 10% (2021 - Y 2%) 3. Victims - older teens and younger adults Sexual Assault 3: aggrevated, wpunds, maims or disfigures victims (med intervention) Proporton: 1% SEXUAL ASSAULT: General Patterns 1. Victims: more likely females and because of their gender 2. Offenders: more likely adult and teen males 3. Race: intra-racial crime Age (victims): young (60% LT 18, 80% are LT 25) pic RISES IN VIOLENCE (Late 80s/90s) Violence peaked in 1991/92 \- common vs serious - increase common (girls/policy), serious violence remained constant. Change in recording (age) Prominent featiures of rates 80/90s: policy changes - zero to tolerance VIOLENT OFFENCES CONSIDERED: Trends overtime - decline since YCJA \- Policy changes explain (80/90s police increase and age, change is illusionary). Violent crime rates driven (influenced) by - level 1 Common assault. Peak of homicide was in 1975 GANG VIOLENCE: Media and political sources: racial and ethnic tied to youth gangs (as Black crime problem' or 'indigenous youth problem') Research: gang activity - multi-ethnic: disadvantaged communities (best explanation - more in wk7) Challenged to research - definitions of 'gang' HOMICIDE: Considered as extreme form of violence. Most crime to be investigated. Reliability - is high (highest of all crimes) Public view of youth homicide - high n 2016, only 5% Media - sensationalized youth homicide - they are incorrigible, cold hearted (female killers). **HOMICIDE CATEGORIES:** Murder: First-degree - planned, peace officer, commission of a crime, terrorist activity, criminal organization, stalking, intimidation. Second degree- all murder that is not first degree is second. MANSLAUGHTER (Culpable Homicide): heat of passion, or provocation, accidental (related to fighting). Infanticide: Death of infant (under 12 months); mother (as a result of giving birth. **27/09/2024** **TOPIC: EXPLAINING YOUTH CRIME** **Homicide and Gangs** Youth are more likely to commit homicide/attempted as a gang member vs Adults (18-Older) (24% vs 14%, 2020). Youths in streets are more likely to be in a gang than those who have homes. **Accused of Homicide:** 12-17 years - 4.6% Vs 18-24 years - 27.1% more likely to be accused **SEX DIFFERENCES: M V F** Accused: males are more likely (2016, 19 males vs 5 females) Victims: males more likely (2016, 19 males vs 4 females) 30-39 more likely to commit homicide Females under the age of 12 are victims of Homicide Relationships: People are more likely to be killed by someone they know (2016, 86% vs 14%) Female vs Males: Females are more likely to be killed with someone they know and Males are more likely to be killed by strangers 2016, 12% of more homicide of intimate partner relationship, decrease from 2015 **TOPIC: EXPLANING YOUTH CRIMES** Theory - the ways of explaining and understanding (the main tenant/the main argument) Some theory have a slight common They have concepts: they have specific definitions (aspects of reality) - it allows us symbolize it They all have their own unique concepts. Highlighted in Blue. Each have their own variable. Frame your research with theory. Hypothesis: how variables differ in relationship to other variables. Level of Analysis: Macro (the structure of society. Gender, social class, racial ethnicity) or Micro (the individual or small group or level). **THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD: Positivism and Criminology** Positivists: 18^th^-Cent. Using Scientific methods as a way to explain crime or determine the causes of crime. They assumed that objective truth can be discovered. The devil made them do it. Eliminated prior explanations: belief based on legends, religion, frameworks as explanation of crime (devil). **CLASSICAL CRIMINOLOGY THEORY:** Beccaria dn Bentham (Philosophers) - Humans are rational and not possessed by the devil (Costs-benefits) and free will - calculate risks and benefits of behaviour(not results of evil spirits or devil) **5 CLASSICAL SCHOOL CENTRAL TENETS** 1. We are hedonistic (seek please and try to avoid pain) 2. We have free will - and we are the deciders of our behaviour 3. Enter into a social contract where we give up things to have social order (not hitting people) 4. Punishment is to transform hedonistic calculator. Punishment creates risk. 5. Move towards utilitarianism - greatest good to the greatest number (secular) of people is what we should strive for. **CRTISIMS OF CLASSICAL SCHOOL:** 1. Long-term benefits - that can out weigh the punishment 2. There are planning (little) 3. Opportunity - without it to commit crime, it doesn't usually happen, they wait for opportunities to present itself 4. You have to have a perception that you'll get caught and punished. If you don't, then you don't see the risks. 5. Being impaired from drugs and alcohol on cognitive ability - emotional impaired states - anger, jealousy to commit and considered a crime 6. Teenagers underestimate the potential cost of behaviour, brain development (pre frontal has not developed) **DETERRENCE THEORY:** Main tenet: penalty with determine the crime. **Two most common types of Deterrence:** 1. General Deterrence: using other people to make an example of what happens when you commit a crime (seeing others punished brings example). 2. Specific Deterrence: personal effect (experience of punishment changes future behaviour. **BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS:** Cesare Lombroso, Medical Doctor: the Father of Criminology, the first time science was applied in crime The Criminal Man (1876) Atavism: he said that criminals were born criminals, evolutionary throwback (biologically). from the word (avatus) Criminals: based on iological charactersitcs Males (muscular, protruding foreheads, close set eyes) Females (he didn't really measure them but he found more atavistic, with more evil tendencies) He worked as a expert witness. **THE RISE OF EUGENICS:** Because essentially if you were born criminal or tendency, how do we control you. Eugenics is controlling the aspects of people that shouldn't be reproducing. Began in late 19th century in Europe Connected to Biological and IQ (Crime) - the lower IQ and vorn crimnal makes it that you can't reproduce Laws passed - sterilize "feeble-minded", mentally ill, epileptic Problem: laws targeted (poor, minorities, women) - without consent and knowledge Problem: testing peoples knowledge of culture instead of intelligence. **BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM - Somatotyping** Body types and personality ( 3 types). 1. Mesomorphs: assertive and aggressive, muscular (criminal) 2. Endomorph: Large, soft, round, easy going and sociable 3. Ectomorph: Slim, tiny, lean, fragile (introverts, not criminal and no need to be liked). CRTISIMS: 1. Methodology - subjects of study (bias) 2. Limited Methods: biological with environments (interact with environments). More connected to their environments. 3. Definition of crime can change over time and culture. 4. Could be **psychological causes**. Neighbourhood tends to be an important factor, having parents who were criminals, etc. PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS: 1. Inherent in indivdulas: pathology. That behavuour is dichotomous 2. Understanding: is about behaviour and connecting it to peoples personality. 3. Personality is motivated for behaviour. Seen as a motuvation that the two are connected 4. Crime is explains to individual **PSYCHOANALTIC Model (Freud)** 1. ID: Operated on a pleasure principle. What makes you feel good. Born with these desires and unique personality 2. Ego: Operates in the reality principle. It is the self. The executive that makes the decision. 3. Superego: The conscious and the ore-conscious. It tells us what we should do. Makes us feel guilty and we try not to violate the Superego. Crime/Criminals: Their superego is not fully developed or is overdeveloped - may break the rules on purpose to get punished. (teens operate on ID, aggression). **5 Stages of Personality Development** 1. Up to 1 year - oral: excess (food, vices) 2. 1-3 years - Anal - Ordered: stingy, control, detailed, org, stubborn 3. 3-6 years - Phallic: (Oedipus-Electra) complexes) - leads to fear, aggression, and identity crisis 4. 7 - puberty - Latency: Focused on Education 5. Genital - Success relations: depend on resolving conflict in previous stages. **PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT and IDENTITY FORMATION (Erikson)** 1. Move through stages from birth to adulthood 2. Each stages: focuses on one issue or one crisis at each stage (positively or negatively affect personality) 3. Resolve each stage: shapes personality and relations 4. Identity: only if positively achieved in childhood. **PERSONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT:** --------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- AGE Stages 0 to 1-1/2 Trust vs Mistrust (when needs met) 1-1/3 to 3 Autonomy vs Shame (assert independence) 3 to 5 Initiatives vs guilt (activities, games) 5 to puberty (- 12) Industry vs Inferiority (learn/educate) Adolscence (12-18 Identity vs role confusion (see ourselves as unique) Early Adult (18-40) Intimacy vs Isolation (relationships). Gonna have good relationships nd long term ones with people --------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Empirical: People do not always have their identity by 18 Adolescence and experimentation: not permanent and most resolve in 20s/adulthood (doesn'y end at 18) **BEHAVIOURISM THEORY** 1. Influences (Pavlov's Dog) 2. That behaviour is learned and can be controlled - 2 stimuli linked together 3. Stages: before conditioning, during conditioning and post conditioning. **Operant Condition:** 1. Classical conditioning was too simple for human behaviour 2. We condition with reward and punishment 3. Behaviour we want by reward, and the one that we don't want by punishment. Process of reinforcement. 4. Rewards (Food) - reinforce behaviour we want 5. Process of shaping - w rewards 6. Young children: reward/punish to learn appropriate behaviour. **SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY** Aggression - learning is a process Observational learning: i. Pay attention ii. Retention - to remember iii. Reproduce behaviour iv. Motivation 3. Patterns if rewards and punishment - continue to behave with rewards. **CHICAGO SCHOOL (PARK AND BURGESS)** Organization of Environment - applied plants and species to humans. \- Competition: for resources in a particular space as seen as species and humans. Some will suffer and some will dominate. Model based on city of Chicago and urban extension. \- Concentric zones: uniqueness across city **CONCENTRIC ZONES** 1. Zone 1: Business Core (loop) - more and more people don't own anything. It's mostly the Government. 2. Zone 2: Transition zone - public housing, businesses (inner-city). They call it that because people are not expected to stay there, they are meant to move out. 3. Zone 3: Working Class Residential - may have ethnic and religious ties. 4. Zone 4: Middle-Class Residential - Doctors, small businesses, more expensive 5. Zone 5: Commuter - Bigger property and houses. **SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION** Shaw and Mckay mapped crime across the city and found out that more crime happened in Zone 2. They analyzed a three year period In Zone 2 - Social controls were all weakened and disorganized. Communities are disorganized and there is no community spirit. Children and teens who were raised in this neighborhood learn from the environment. Policy - as a means to encourage 'organization' and social cohesion. **CRITISM**: 1. Middle-class bias: appears disorganized from Middle class point of vie, crime only committed by poor people. 2. Police discretion: more likely in zone 2, and more arrests of poor people. \- undercover work. **STRUCTURE FUNCTIONALISM:** What causes deviance? 3. Main tenet: society is a system, made up og interrelated parts, and working together. 4. Several theorists (Durkheim, Merton,Parsons) 5. Function - roles - contribute to working in society 6. As Adolescent - role is prolonged (more now than before, role is to train for adulthood). **Contribution:** 1. Anomie - a state 'normlessness' (social norms and vales are unclear or confused). \- can lead to crime, suicide and violence. 2. Industrial Revolution - what has been applied to other things. Changes. From one revolution or state to another. 3. Social solidarity - a social strength and cement that binds people together, important for anomie. Having people connected, we are humans and we need people around. **Merton (1938)**: argued that people adapt to anomie in different ways. (US and American dream). 1. His argument is that material wealth is connected to cultural goals. 2Institutional means: legitimate ways to achieve education and hard work If you work hard enough you'll be rich. 3. Blocked Opportunites: from those goals leads to crime. As does rejection to legit means. **STRAIN-THEORY: Criticisms** 1. Bias to street crime. What of White-Collar crime? 2. Explaining female criminality - would have had less opportunities and blocked opp than men (part in 1938) 3. Assumes value consensus: all agree with the goals that is to make money. 4. Dark figure of crime: police/courts 5. Does not explain the deviance and crime for fun (more common for youth, thrill and bonding). GENERAL STRAIN THEORY (Agnew) 1. Focused on the individual level of strain. That teens experience strain in different ways than adults and may feel stress in different ways. They have no control 2. Crime is a result of negative affective states from strain: drinking, doing drugs, etc. It can happen in 4 ways and some can overlap: 1. Strain the failure to achieve goals: aspirations vs expectations (wanting to be popular, getting into the basketball team, etc) 2. Achievement not meeting expectations - when they start to compare themselves to peers and others. 3. Removal or the loss of positive things: the death of someone, moving into a new neighborhood and school, parental separation, breaking up from a relation which causes strain and stress, even as adults. 4. Strain as the presentation of negative formuli: such as abuse, corporal punishment, victimization, family conflict, school failure, etc. He argues that crime is as a result of violence: \- strain continuous or repeated \- Resources few to cope with strain \- Association with criminal peers - school and delinquent peers are two of the most factors Explains: crime in adolescence Criticisms: gender differences doe not explain criminal activities. **SUBCULTURE: STATUS FRUSTRATION (Reaction Formation - by Cohen):** 1. Focus was on lower-class youth (males). 2. School: compulsory and competitive (for status) - increased in 1940/50s to 16) 3. Middle-class: sets the rules of will or will not be granted for status. They are the "measuring rod" 4. They formed sub-cultures as gangs- and they compete for status (fighting/violence, reject MC values). Differential Illegitimate Opportunity: Compelled to deviance Access to legitimate/illegitimate opportunities to achieve goals (which was available in the neighbourhood, Chicago school). **The first 3 Subcultures (gangs):** 1. Criminal subculture: techniques and skills. 2. Conflict Subculture: on conflict (combat skills and how well you fight). 3. Retreating subculture: double failure and escape (not willing to risk their safety and lives, withdraw from society and draw to drugs and alcohol as a way to escape). **DIFFERNTIAL ASSOCIATION (Sutherland, 1934):** 1. He is the theorist that coined WCC - Empirical evidence: explains youth deliquesces and WCC. 2. Socialization groups: which encourages deviance and conformity 3. Cultural Transmission: which is an approach that he wanted to look at: i. Cultural traditions and ii. Generational - how traditions are passed from one generation to th e next, socialization process **9 PROPOSITIONS:** 1. Criminal behaviour is learned 2. Learned in the interaction with others like communication (verbally and non-verbally). 3. Intimate personal groups - most effective - people who are around your internal personal groups are more likely to have an impact 4. When criminal behaviour is learned - there are techniques that are required which can be simple or complex and specific directions of motives, drives and rationalization for those behaviour. 5. Motives are learned from definitions of legal codes as favourable of unfavourable from groups 6. Person becomes criminal by excess definitions of favorable to violation of law (saying it is okay to break the law). 7. Varies in terms of frequency, duration, priority and intensity (more of, make impact) 8. Process is the same as other types of learning (tying your shoes, learning to drive, etc). 9. Although criminal behaviour is an expression of need and values - it is the same as both criminal and non-criminal behaviour. **Different Association: Highlights** 1. Learned through interaction 2. Process of communication 3. Intimate groups 4. Genera ![](media/image2.png) TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION: 1. Young people drift into deviance and delinquency. 2. Teens are not committed to deviance (WC) 3. Preoccupation - pleasure with fun and risk taking, crime - search for hedonistic pleasure ("bad-timing"). 4. When confronted with deviant self-image, self-identity, explain it away, most found in teenage boys. (common with adults too). 5. Justifications: the person is explaining why they are not criminal and should not have a criminal identity. **5 OF THE MOST COMMON TECHNIQUES:** 1. Denial of responsibility: refuse to accept or blame others or circumstances (blaming parents). Example - I didn't do it, I didn't mean to do it, it wasn't me, I was the look out I didn't involve myself, etc. Th law sees that if you are with people who commit a crime you are also responsible. 2. Denial of injury: To others is real (harm) - physical injury 3. Denial of victim - they may take responsibility but they are not really a victim cause they participated in a way. Example: he started it, he was a bully so I had to put him in his place, she had it coming, they shouldn't have called me names. 4. Condemnation of the Condemners: Put attention back on the person. Example: they're hypocrites, they don't like me, they're corrupt, everyone is on the take. (common in teens and adults). 5. Appeal to higher loyalty: For greater good - or something honorable Example: only cowards back down, my friends needed me, I did it for y parents, I can't disappoint them. **CRITICISMS:** 1. Learning skills in a group context 2. Emphasis on skills - some require no skill 3. Predisposition - deviance because of the group? Or do you become friends with them because they have same skills? **SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY:** Questions: why do people conform? A social-psychology aspect Natural state: impulses and deviance pleasure break the laws Contrianed by social controls - which help us obey the rules. They help maintain our pleasurable selves. Inner controls: from within (those pleasures). Emotional - feels good to conform Socialization: they learn as children, for parents. Break the rules - not happy, you don't - u get a reward. Outer Controls: Manifest through loss (eco/social/other) - making sure you follow the rules Formal (state social control agents and Informal (through family, fiends and peers) control. **SOCIAL BONDS (Hirschi)** Empirical evidence - good explanation for youth crime, mixed with adults. Social Controls - social bonds Three things that help with social bonds for a youth - Family, school and peers 1. Attachment - to conventional persons - family and friends - care bout their feelings. Eg, if you get along with your parents you will have more conformity, if you don't less conformity. 2. Commitment: to conventional goals and institutions (education, career, church/religion). 3. Involvement - in conventional activities 9sports, hobbies, PT jobs, volunteer) - no time for delinquency - having nothing to do makes it easy for you to get into trouble. 4. Belief: acceptance of conventional value system, laws, rules and regulations (belief in rules/laws will obey). **POLICY SOCIAL CONTROL THEORY:** Education and work projects: keep youth in school, part-time work. Activities and recreation: important to have other activities outside of school (sports, arts, hobbies, etc) - begun focus in at risk communities ![](media/image4.png) **CRITICISMS SCT:** Concepts are difficult to measure - how can we measure "attachment" - commitment, etc. Evidence for adults can be mixed - specifically for explaining juveniles and teens. **04/10/2024** **NEW THEORIES IN EXPLAINING YOUTH CRIME:** **General Theory of Crime or Low self control theory -** Main tenet: crime as result of having low self control. Increased opportunities to commit crime. Formation of self-control: socialization process by age 10. You have to get to kids early. Low self-control will be tempted to commit more crime. Evidence: good - link of self-control and crime; characteristics of impulsive, risk-seeking, unreliable and self-centred. **LABELLING THEORY (Symnlic Interaction):** Assumptions: Not the act itself is the problem but the contextual meaning attached to it (deviance in the eyes if the beholder) **3 basic questions:** 1. Who gets labeled deviant? 2. How does this process occur 3. What are the consequences of being labeled deviant? **LABELLING THEORY:** 1. Labeling occurs between individuals with differing power (labeled, are without). 2. Youth are without power (all contexts where adults are). **TYPES OF LABELLING:** 1. Formal Labeling - formal agents (police, and courts). 2. Informal labeling: informal relations (peers or family). Less severe than the formal. **DRAMATIZATION OF EVIL:** 1. Juveniles participate in a range of activities - situations where they are away of adults - drinking, smoking, vandalism, skipping class, etc. 2. Adults find it objectionable. 3. Adults create laws to prohibit juveniles behaviors (curfews, drinking, smoking, etc) 4. Sanctions represent "dramatization of evil" - leads to more misconduct. Becker: The Outsiders: 1. Crime is labeled as socially constructed 2. Laws - become the exercise of power 3. Focus - on rule makers and enforces 1. Master Status: overrides all others, regardless of context in which person is located \- Reactions 9 positive/negative) - people can respond to you on your type of race. 2. Ascribed: born with race disability and homosexuality. 3. Achieved: via merit (doctor, thief) **EDWIN LAMERT:** 1. Requires social reaction (label): based on social power (some more likely to be labeled than others) 2. Process from primary deviance to secondary deviance A. Primary Deviance: initial violation of rules and norms \- occasional or hidden or no strong social reaction \- teens (common): experiment, peer pressure B. Secondary Deviance: social reaction to primary deviance; severe and/or continuous (police, doctors) \- label becomes a SFP (Self-fulfilling Prophecy). **CRITICIMS:** 1. Criminal without label - you can be criminal without being caught. 2. Deterrence can happen when caught - especially girls - girls will be brought in sooner or later and get harsher treatment than boys. 3. Ignores causes of primary deviance, and not others 4. Personality problems - before a label is applied (psych) 5. Lack of Agency (passive) - doesn't allow them for resisting the label 6. Who is most susceptible to internalizing 7. Focus on formal labels. **POLICIES:** 1. Reducing formal negative labels - it creates a stigma 2. Diversion programs - Community Service limit institutionalization of deviants 3. Enhance or bring in probation and parole programs - reintegration to community. 4. Decriminalize non-violent victimless crime: drugs, prostitution, vagrancy. 5. Teens: diversion program from court, identification in media and sealed/deleted records. **MODERN CONFLIT THEORY:** It is influenced by: 1. Self-report studies 2. Labeling theories 3. Research on - inequality and injustice 4. Social and political environment (1960/70s) 5. Focus: inequalities lead to criminalization 1. **Reaction to Deprivation Thesis (Greenberg in 2980) - conflict- Marxist theory** : He argues that crime is calculated response (rational) \- property crime: earn income \- violent crime: unsohisticated means theft or vent frustrations Predictions about crime: crime increases when proletariat is excluded from opportunities (poverty and unemployment), particularly youth and YA. **Reactions:** 1. Labour market - excludes youth or exploits them 2. Exclusion - can cause strain (leisure inertial to youth subcultures/identity), can lead to crime and delinquency. 3. Authority an adults: degrade and exploit them at school and work, which will make them rebel and retaliate. **DIFFERENT OPPRESSION:** 1. Integrated theory - strain and conflict theory 2. View some aspects of social control (from adults) as oppressive 3. Oppression: unjust use or misuse of authority; negative outcome experienced by people. 4. Subject to oppressive measures: children viewed as objects and things (they view themselves as objects). 5. Children and youth: socially ordered world created by adults 6. As objects: women - viewed as Inferior to men and children viewed as inferior to adults. 7. Lack of power - for change situation 8. Oppression is matter of degree - not all children experience similar level of oppression. **FOUR PRINCIPLES:** 1. Forced to abide by rules of adults 2. Adults perception - as inferior, subordinate and troublemakers 3. Imposition of adult conceptions of order: can become extreme to oppression 4. When abusive or neglect - children generalize this abuse to other adults (police, school authorities, etc). **ADAPT IN 4 WAYS:** 1. Passive acceptance - obedient out of fear - behave like slaves/inmates/battered women - learn to hate (lead to substance abuse) 2. Exercise illegitimate coercive power: child attempt\'s to demonstrate power over adults by engaging in illicit activities, crimes and misbehave 3. Manipulation of peers - gain power over peers gives them feeling of empowerment (bullying violence) 4. Retaliation: strike back at institutions that oppress them (eg, school vandalism, assault, murders of teachers or parents, commit suicide. \- Response: more oppression - which makes it worse. ![](media/image6.png) **NEW THEORIES (UK):** 1. Influenced - by work of Beckham, Marx, Chicago school. 2. American subculture - focused on delinquents as per a gang 3. Focus: leisure 4. CCCS: Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies - University of Birmingham **MORAL PANIC (Cohen, 1972) - UK** 1. Focus: Mods and Rockers in UK Defined Moral Panic as a condition, episode, person or group of persons that emerges to become defined as a threat (greater than actual threat) 2. 3. 4. **5 FEATURES** 1. Media takes an ordinary event - and presents it as something extraordinary 2. Deviance amplification - "authorities" demonize those folk devils - more police to make more arrests 3. They clarify moral boundaries 4. They occur during periods of rapid and social change 5. Young people are targeted - they symbolize the future (others lack power). **SUBCULTURAL THEORY:** 1. Influenced by : Marx and conflict theories, labeling theory and social ecology (Chicago school) 2. British cities - class segregated (like USA) - your accent changes based on your social class 3. Affluence ideology (myth in the UK) 4. Hegemony (Gramsci) - a process in which the ruling class wins approval through consent rather than force (make their ideology seem natural, normal and inevitable). **SUBCULTURAL THEORY - Birmingham school** 1. Subculture of focus: mods, rockers, teddy boys, punks (50s - 70s) 2. Resistance - to ruling class (bourgeoisie) and was political 3. Style - expression of that resistance 4. Style and music: expression of political resistance (to MC values, instead of violence). **Lifecourse Theories of Crime** Main Tenet: children undergo succession of role and status changes as they grow older Crime in the context of a person's course of life Transitions: *short-term* changes - that we can look at Pathways (or trajectories): *long-term* trends or patterns Embedded in social institutions - others can iclude pregnancy - having children does change peoples lives TAXIONOMY: Two groups: in a child and teen years Life course-persistent: begins in early childhood and continuous as adults (few, -5%) Adolescence-limited: engages in anti-social behaviour un adolescence, inconsistently, and only Main tenet: antisocial behaviour **DEVELOPMENT THEORY:** Unit of Analysis: tend to look at the individual Patterns of crime over development: \- Onset: when the individual starts offending \- Course/persistence: how long or a period of time, how frequent, how serious are the crime that this person is committing. \- Desistence: identify the end of criminal activity Research: crime is an escalation (from minor crimes to far more serious criminal activity) - it doesn't start serious at first. Early onset: age to consider (age 14 as the line, arrest/contact) with police - there is a possibility that it will escalate - (important predictor). Frequency estimates (over a year time): a large range **ROUTINE ACTIVITIES THEORY: 1979** Everyday living creates structures of opportunity for victim and criminals to interact (a lifestyle theory) It explains a type of victimization (a predictor of street crimes or conventional crimes0 - which are done on purpose - assault, etc Links it to crime rates to people's activity (and changes to activity) Youth: offending an victimization - an be explained on lifestyle and opportunity. 1. Motivated offender: Given that it's a male and he's young 2. Suitable target: Target for crime (object person) \- Varies dimensions (value, visible, accesible, inertia) 3. Absence of capable guardians: Degree of protection (person - (a group of 4 or 5) or technology - security, cameras) MIDTERM - YAY:) Purple - from textbook Green - added to lecture If it is not on the review it is not on the midterm THERE IS AN OPTION FOR A SECOND ATTEMPT NEED TO NOT KNOW 1. Statistics - know more about patterns (theft, mischief) 2. Specific dates - in 92 - 5 years, and 95 - inc to 10 years IMPORTANT 1. Lecture review is more extensive than posted one 2. Should be written independently 3. Should not be copied or taken from another student FORMAT Matching - need all to get a credit MCQ - 64 of 110 Written - 1 out of 3 for 75 marks WRITTEN QUESTIONS: Want to work out on written questions in advance Make sure to answer the WHY part of the question DON'T TREAT IT AS AN ESSAY Two significant changes - week 1 Two opposing sides - youth advocate vs law and order (MCQ and written for this) Media and the politics of youth crime - week 2 Colonial and Victorian issue (9-12) - immorality in 19th century(13-15) : view children and delinquency, sentencing boys and girls The Victorian Public issue (16-23) - Neglect and Delinquent children Era of the juvenile Delinquent: the 20^th^ century (20-23) Media, Moral Panic and Populism (27-29) - general arguments, definition Myths and Facts about Youth Crime (23-29) (3 myths) - Bernard - covered over several subsections Concepts: discourse, marginalized. Written Question: Outline how youth advocate WEEK 2: 24Q Media reporting of Youth crime (rules) - JDA, YOA, YCJA Victorian Reformers (Intro) - view of youth and the YJS Children\'s rights (60-65) - colonial era, UN Articles and rights of children Changes from one legislation to the next Characteristics are uniqueness of JDA 1908, YOA of 1984 and the of YCJA of 2003 Week 2: Legislative models for juvenile justice (37, 38) - charactersitcs Crime control Justice Welfare Restorative juvenile (community changes) WQ - Considering in the past 100 years of Juvenile Justice Reform, which changes (at least 3) do you think are most significant and why? WEEK 3 - 26Q Readings - chap 3 and 4 Sources and youth crime/measuring youth crime Media - 74-75: reporting Formal agencies UCR Statistics - with police and police statistics - on phone Concepts: reliability, validity, telescoping, self ful prophecy Self report studies, measure and what t says about youth crime, patterns Victimization surveys: measures and weaknesses and victims Sources of youth crime: which sources of information is the best - Bortner and official stats Violent offenses considered: stats affected - policy, trends, gender, differences Social correlates of crime - cha4 - photo on phone A&S - patterns of crime - Nature of youth crime - bar chart Definitions of crime: categories, within categories - 2 ques on mischief Homicide - types of homicide and patterns Trends (94 - 97) UCR: Youths are more likely than adults (gangs) Sexual assault (93-94) Youth: patterns SexA - typologies (table 3.1) Youth as victims of crime (ch4 140, 143, 146) - cycle of violence, as victims, location, age and sex, concepts. WEEK 4 (25 Q - possible) Theories listed - know main tenet and how explain crime and concepts(policy if only listed) Biological positivism (159-161) Explaining the Biological facts - newer theories Sheldon and body types - Somatotyping and which one is connected to crime Psychoanalytic theories (FRUED) - stages of personality WEEK 5 - 20Q Possible Chap 6 \_ 179-190 - up to theories about girls Labeling theory - policy and criticisms Lemeert primary and sec General theory of crime - the gen arguments of self control as predictor off crime Rational choice theory (184) - an extension of classical theory Routine Activities Theory - 183-184 Life course theory of crime - 188-189 Social Capital theory Developmental criminology: taxonomy **DATE: 25-10-2024** **RISKS** Common definition - Always seen as a negative behaviour. Could be dangerous, that makes you rethink your behaviour. The reality of Risks - it is hypothetical and it doesn't exist. And the probability is calculated on what we know from the past to predict the future. **RECIVIDISM AND INTERENTION** **Dynamic risk factors**: these are amendable to treatment. They can be changed if given treatment - e.g, substance use, attitudes, the friends they keep, etc. **Static risk factors:** they cannot change or undue. Eg, parental abuse, even therapy won't work. The earlier the abuse the harder it is to treat. **RISK FACTORS:** School - academic (if they tend to fail a grade), social (friends they keep), bullied (victimized by other youths) and peers (having trouble making friends). Family - the structure of the family, unemployment, stress, conflict, discipline (the type of discipline used on kids or no discipline), parental criminality, violence in the home (to kids or spouse). Peers - delinquent kids - will influence their behaviour, elsewhere, family members and cousins, the neighbourhood which they live. Neighbourhood - physical environment, economical and recreational, support, mentors, risky (high rates of crime, gang activities, etc.) Drug dealers recruit kids under the age of 12. **CANADIAN YOUTH:** 35% are viewed as having no risk. Not involved or comes to the attention of the CJS or anyone else. About 25% are considered low risk - they may have some academic issues, and struggling at school with their grades and peers, which may not come to the attention of the CJS. Moderate risk 20% - they may have conflict with law and school, may have home violence, and are victimized in their school or neighborhoods, which will be known to the CJS. High risk 15% - several risk factors at the same time, may have issues at home which is brought to school and will be known to police. Very High Risk 5% - known to police services, foster care and homeless, they run away from their homes, they are failing school or being suspended/expelled. **EDUCATION:** Canada\'s High School graduation rate is 2019/2020 - 84% Provincially - 94% in NL and 79% in PQ USA was 86% Highest drop-out rate - 17 years old - Indig (23%) vs Non-Indig (10%) Gender - girls (87%) and boys (81%). Girls are more likely to graduate from Uni than boys. **SCHOOL:** Lack of commitment to school is a predictor of delinquency in girls Tracking - streaming students into a tracking system, can be a predictor for delinquency' Disability - not getting support/the response to help disabled kids is a predictor. Peer relations - being bullied by their peers, relational aggression, substance use and abuse. **RESPONDING TO SCHOOL VIOLENCE:** 1. Zero-tolerance - disobeying school authority and school rules. If expelled, then it has negative consequences. 2. Curfews - used in small communities with little evidence shows that it is effective, exception. \- criminalized 3. Can contribute to a **"net widening effect " I.e bringing more people into the system**. High school failures - young people dropping out and not passing, parenthood and illiteracy. Public school model - An European middle-class. 1. Usually marginal students - ethic, racial, 2slgbtq+ students are more likely to experience bullying. 2. Poor - risky to boys, more work means no time for school 3. Home dysfunction - substance abuse and violence by parents 4. Geography - **large metropolitan areas have more drop-outs and high school violence.** **GETTING RID OF TROUBLEMAKERS** Methods - DuBois High School - inner city US, high population of Black Youths. Demographics - with half adults not graduating from HS, half lived in poverty and 60% single-parent. Research study of one year, record a suspended rate of over 25% at least one. Boys and Girls had different Discipline office Most routine problems - lateness, cutting class, disrupting class Less Rioting problems - fighting, drug possessions, theft, vandalism or threats to teachers. 1. Rare - sale of drugs, violence against teacher, having weapons. Penalties - some were expelled, some put in detention before or after school 2. Suspensions (Boys side/view). A. Disruption for school - 4% B. Damage or theft to property - 1% C. Theft or damage for private property - \_1% D. Assault on school employees - 0.04% E. Assault on a student or other person not employed - 8.6% F. Possession of weapons - 0.8% G. Possessions of drugs/alcohol - 2.4% H. Repeated school violations or no reason - 63% I. Disruption and offensive use of language - 46% 81% was to punish against school authority rather than safety. **SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION of Troublemaker** 1. Asking students about incidents were rare 2. Assessment tools: grades, attendance, previous discipline, age, plans for employment 3. Ask details - they only ask students if the students has good grades, which is seen as having good behaviour. **THE ROLE OF PEERS:** Friends/Peers - having delinquent peers are the greatest predictors of delinquency. And boys are more likely to be affected. Trust and attachment (boys). Deferentially expose and affected - exposed boys to delinquent friends are more likely to engage in delinquency. When girls have older bf, that is a predictor of age delinquency. **PARENTING:** Parental responsiveness - the extent a parent is or are supportive of a child\'s need. Parental warmth and affection to a child, is less delinquency. Parental demandingness - a parents demanding a particular behaviour or appropriate behaviour (use of discipline). \- less demanding or too demanding - delinquency **TYPES OF FAMILY:** 1. **Authoritative** - a parent is very supporting and warmth, demanding a behaviour. \- Monitor the children, impart clear standards - discipline is supportive vs punitive - least amount of criminality 2. **Authoritarian**: rejecting and extremely demanding, no warmth or affection \- tend to value obedience over everything, use of corporal/physical punishment. More aggression and violence 3. **Indulgent**: supportive and not demanding \- not required mature behaviour, allow self-regulation - permissive, and shun discipline - behavioral issues and delinquent is most likely 4. **Indifferent** - rejecting and not emotionally effective and invested to their kids. Parents focus on themselves first. \- aggression when rejected. ![](media/image8.png) **WHAT DOES THE DATA SHOW?** Authoritative parents: have the least amount of criminality among their children NMSCY Survey: parenting styles have a greater impact on youth criminality - than broken homes or income levels. **CONSEQUENCES OF POOR FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS:** 1. Aggression - emotional and behavioral disorders 2. Crime - property crimes, mischief. 3. Substance abuse and alcohol abuse - authoritative 4. Running away - authoritarian 5. Violence - go out into the world and become more violent 6. Generational issues - goes into adulthood **WORK: UNEMPLOYMENT AND YOUTH** Youth and employment (14-24) - highest race and ethnicity Reasons - have less training skills, less experience, looking for people who are more stable and committed to the job, etc. Position at work - marginalized and low pay Education - plays an important role in unemployment **YOUTH AND WORKING FOR WAGES:** Common work: 1. Service industry 2. Construction and landscaping for boys - seasonal 3. Boys vs Girls - Boys work more hours over the school year than girls. Boys are likely to drop out cause of work. 4. Wages \-- minimum wages 5. Ont - Oct 1st \$16.20 vs \$17.20 adult. **EFFECST OF WORK:** 1. Positive - tends to make people more responsible, manage money, time management build confidence and they tend to get better grades. 2. Negative (15 hours per week) - tends to make you have lower grades, absenteeism, less time with family and an increase to substance use. **GANG DEFINITIONS:** Definition issues: Gangs and organized crime (membership itself). what is a crime is when it is taken as more serious. It counts as an aggravated factor. ![](media/image10.png) **DATE: 01/11/2024** **BOOK REVIEW** Strengths - start with "One strength of the book is..." ONLY TWO STRENGHTS AND WEAKNESSES\ \ Needs to be something on reading the book Photos (as an example only not S/W) Tell me why (sell me) Back it up with specific examples **FOCUS ON THE BOOK NOT THE CASE (Indent the 2 Paragraphs for S/W)** Essentially: you are pitting the strength against the weaknesses (if u like the book) **QUESTION TO CONSIDER**: How is the book? Is it redeemable. Or no? (match thesis) Can the weaknesses be overcome? Be explicit: why does the strength outweigh the weaknesses? **CONCLUSION** - repeat the thesis. Who should specifically read it? Recommendation should not be vague. - restated thesis and recommendation. **WRITING TIPS** 1. Do not refer to the book as a novel - it is not fiction or characters 2. It may read as a novel but it is not - the more you repeat, more marks lost. 3. 12 point - times new roman, double-spaced, 2.54cm margins. 4. Each page should be numbered (only biblo of book is 1ingle spaced) 5. Needs a title page (with a title) - also 2-spaced 6. Should have reference on top of page. And intro follows on the next line. They do not give the family name or her name (write it the way it was writing in the book, (JR - her name). **TOPIC: GIRL OFFENDERS** Traditionally Criminology:\ Research and theorizing about delinquency focuses on males \- E.g, Thrasher, Cohen, Hirschi. Why important:: explaining why they commit crime and their policy. They were mythologized and misrepresented (incorrigible and connected to their sexuality). Early criminologists (assumed race (that bad girls had sex and sexually active)). Girl are seen as a threat if they are engaging with a lot of sex and crime (they won't be good mums). **BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM:** Lombrosso and atavism: biological physical character He said that women are more criminal but is suppressed due to our natural state. Criminal women - born with muscular qualities. Women are more manipulation and deceitful. Paradise Lost - by Milton - how eve is the destruction of humanity. **THE UNADJUST GIRL**:\ Thomas focused on known offenders and tried connecting it to why women and girls are connected to crime. Data were gathered during the WW1 Arrests - women were carrying BD - Bicular Disease\* Concluded that females who commit crime and delinquent are linked to sexuality. Did not address oppression. **CHIVALRY HYPOTHESIS (Pollak) 1950:** Women and girls commit more crime than guys 3 Ways to explain Women crime: 1. Women are inherently deceitful (his) evidence - because women can fake their orgasms and men can't. 2. Women are more vengeful and that makes them commit more crime - (during their menstruation) (his) evidence. 3. Differential reinforcement by system toward girls/women - police can't arrest them, crown to prosecute them and judges to/juries to convict. \- Official records. \- His evidence (through self-report). **PROBLEM (CRITIQUE) - Chivalry Hypothesis:\ **Chilvary (leniency): there is some (women who are responsible for children). Chivalry are not equally bestowed to all (Cheney - 1999) Paternalism: practice of restricting freedom and making decision for them as subordinates. (Courts say - we are doing this for your own good). Social characteristics - w.mc women benefit; poor; Black and Indigenous women do not. Type of offence: determine - women treated more harshly than men by the police and courts if offence is more. As a victim of Sexual Assault (default) - she is lying and extends to court - least likely to move from police to court It is a System that reinforces criminology - Girls and women act (crying, etc) As victim of sexual assault: default\ \ Reinfrocement **POWER-CONTROL THEORY (Hagan, Gills, Simpson) 1987:\ **Class and family\ 1. traditional (Patriarchal) family\ - Traditional roles (authority in work)\ - Working class households - dads work more\ - Daughters socialization and being supervised.\ - Delinquency (D less; S more 3. Modern (Egalitarian) family \- Non-traditional roles and power (authority in work) \- middle-class households\ - Daughters socialization (take risks and have careers)\ - Delinquency (\ \ **CRITICISMS - POWER-CONTROL AUTHORITY:\ **1. Evidence is mixed More support for control than more - the more girls are controlled the more they'll stay away from delinquency. With boys - they become more delinquent. Theory - is sexist **SOCIALIZATION AS EXPLANATION (Liberal Feminism) - Evidence is good:**\ 1. Expectations for Appropriate Behaviour - risk (boys vs girls) 2\. Social control 3\. Opportunity for delinquency (boys than girls)\ 4.Career models (girls are more likely than boys to 5\. Attitudes as pro-social (from prev) UNDERSTANDING GIRLS DELINQUENCY:\ 1. Gender Role and socialization Theory: need to recognize - restraints to opportunity 3. Old idea about girls are problematic (denied access - refuted/no evidence)\ \ 3. Juvenile justice system - focus on boys - detrimental to girls. **UNDERSTANDING GIRL'S DELINQUENCY**\ 1. Status offenses: was attributed to psychiatric disorders (patriarchy).\ 2. Girls' referrals: psych treatment and drugs\ 3. Girls in the system: more likely victims of crime **PARENTAL RELATIONSHIPS:\ **1. Girls vs. Boys (G by non police agencies). Boys are highly reported to the police while girls have no contact with police agencies 3. Conflict in home: double standard (act out and viewed as incorrigible) 4. Abuse \- sexual abuse (vs boys) (girls - longer, starts earlier and often by family members). Consequences - running away and engage in prostitution (both a crime). **ROMATIC RELATIONSHIPS:\ **1. Adolescence and dating - 13-14 years 2. Normative development \- romantic relationships (girls date, boys date)\ 3. Sexuality development (High School) and sexual identity. 3. Relationships and delinquency (girls and romantic partners) (heterosexual). 4. Dating older partners (hetero) risk: substance use and sexual coercion) **JUVENILE OFFENDERS AND DATING:** Juvenile offenders dating (differs from prosocial) \- Partner (sought criminal partners) 3. Psycho-social adjustment into adulthood (age 21) with partners (only girls and criminal bf). 4. Relationships with parents \- influences romantic relations (negative) \- consistent romantic partners and parental support. **BAD BOYS OR POOR PARENTS (Cauffman, 2008):\ **1. Focus: a) general characteristics of romantic relationships; b) partner characteristics and anti-social behaviour; c) interrelations between parental relationships, partners ASE (anti-social encouragement) and delinquency.\ - Hypothesized\ - Methods: sample of 1,354 teens (170 males; 184 females), aged 14 to 17 years.\ \ **BAD BOYS OR PARENTS: RESULT:\ **1. Prior relationships (partners): boys v girls \- Number (15.4B vs 8G) and length (4.4B vs 4.8G months)\ 2. Risky behaviour (boys more likely; unfaithful; one-night, multiple current partners). 3\. Current relationships \- girls (greater age difference 2.5 vs 0.3 years) 4. Self-report offending and relationships \- ASE from partners (B and G similar) \- Girls **EXPLANATION FOR MOTIVATION FOR CRIME AND AGGRESSION:**\ 1. Girls (differ than boys) 3. Stereotypical gender relations (as subordinate and objectified). 4. Experience of sexual discrimination 5. Trauma and victimization **GIRL AGRESSION AND DELINQUENCY: (Social-psychological) factors that contribute:**\ 1. Problem family dynamics and parental relationships - parent and sibling, low maternal attachment. 2\. Gender-based oppression and abuse and need to attract male gaze (worth). 3. Mental health (no support) and personality factors. 4. School difficulties (low achievements and commitment to school). 5. Alleviation of boredom and attention seeking (need to be noticed, inclusion, and valued). 6. Substance abuse by parents (and girls). 7. Connection to delinquent peers (older males). 8. Negative self-representation (other people see them negatively or without worth). 9. Aggression doesn't begin with isolated events (progression) 10. Not all girls act in the same way (are not homogeneous groups) 11. Differentness is basis for prevention and intervention \- race/ethnicity: differ in problematic life experiences \- institution sexiam (starts with police) 12. Adult attitudes \- gender constructions - determine what is legal and what is "feminine" (often males). **SHOPLIFTING (Larceny-theft)** 1. Shoplifting offenses committed - (teens) in company of others, desire to impress friends (esp younger teens). 2. Viewed as a pink-collar offence ("girl" crime). 3. Boys more frequently: more friends that are supportive of it. 4. Vs girls - steal more items per incident and they start earlier. 5. Theories to explain - social learning and differential association **RACE AND ETHNICITY: Indigenous Girls:**\ 1. Over-representation - contact with CJS. 2\. 2 Key factors (over-representation) A. Socially and economically vulnerable (marginalized groups) B. Over-reliance on use of imprisonment by the CJS. 3. Beliefs about indigenous parents (from CJS) \- Did not now better (incarcerate as "protective custody")\ - To court: parents appear irresponsible \- Incarcerations longer to "protect them" (paternalism and colonialism). \- Socioeconomic deprivation (on or off reserve). \- Institutionalized racism: absence of adequate correctional programs. \- Often placed in situations where they have little choice. \- Criminal activity: reflects social rather than criminal problems. \- Racialized Justice Factors. \- Cultural racism, sexism, poverty. **BLAKC GIRLS: USA** 1. Girls behaviour framed differently 2. Black girls (responsibility): made inappropriate life choices: they are held responsible. 3. White girls (responsibility): the result of low self-esteem, abandonment or abuse; not their fault. 4. Consequences: incarceration vs treatment **ADULTIFICATION OF BLACK GIRLS:** 1. Adultification:\ I. process of socialization where children function in more mature stage (situational, necessity). II\. How adults perceive children - social and cultural stereotypes - based on race.\* **DATE: 08-11-2024** **MEDIAN AND BULLYING:** **Kids Crime vs. Adult Crime:** 1. Placement: where story is located (first few pages most important, all crime storied tend to be in the first few pages). 2. Broadcast news: first block (90s vs 60s) 3. Murder as a crime of choice (52% vs 28% of their stories) 4. Other violent crime reporting (27% vs 37%) 5. Female crimes: news reporting (15% vs 7%) 6. Stranger danger (9% vs 26%) 7. Victimization (F - more often as adults) **HOW YOUTH/CHILDHOOD IS VIEWED IN MEDIA (Jewkes, 2015)**\ 1. (As news value) - children: associated with a crime story becomes newsworthy (victim or offender). 2. Dichotomy: adultified and infantilization (not equal for all) 3. Viewed as "tragic victims" (need of protection) or "monsters" (need to be locked up). **CANADIAN NEWSPAPERS:\ **1. Sample 3 Newspapers over 2-month period. 2. Youth crime: violence (94% of focus on articles) 3. Focus of stories: charges, arrests and impact of crime on victim. 4. Sentencing (very few stories; lack of information). 5. Location of the paper: where in first 2-3 pages (more space and larger headlines). **DISCOURSES AND HEADLINES:\ **1. Common words describing youth: belligerent, punks, troublemakers, thugs, gangsters. 3. Headlines: moral conduct assessment (alarmist reactions). 4. Emotionally driven (frighten public) 5. Examples: \- "Girls cruelty can be deadly" \- "No Jail for Student Killer Called Travesty" \- "Youth gets 18 months for friend's murder" **SOCIOLOGY OF MUSIC:**\ Examines the social conditions and uses under which music is produced, listened to, and meanings members give to it. Rise of rock and pop music: depend on youth as market Research with Youth: \- Meaning invested in music (unmatched). \- Identity construction (sub-cultural level). **MUSIC AND YOUTH DEVIANCE:\ **1. Hip-Hop subculture (rap music). 2. Origins: NYC. 3. Tied to the social climate at the time. 4. Themes: racism, roots and resistance. 5. NWA - targeted by FBI (See: Straight Outta Compton - 2015) 6. Controversial song: "Cop Killer" 1992 - by Body Count - accused of encouraging youth to killing police. **DOES RAP MUSIC MAKE YOUTH MORE DELINQUENT?\ **1. Survey: Toronto Youth (1998-2000) with 3,393 students (13 to 18) -- Separate & Public schools RQ: can rap music be linked to crime & delinquency? Is rap music an expression of resistance? Rap listener univores (Urban Enthusiasts): Black 46%), White (19%) and Asian or South Asian (16%). Rap Listeners: resistance values - more likely (inequality) and racial injustice - Black and White UE) Crime and delinquency: property and violent crime more likely to reported by U (Property) Could not determine the way the survey is done. Is it the musical taste or the criminal activity? U cannot determine that.\ \ Explanations: found that esp connected to white and Asian identified of glamorized violence of rap culture vs bad stereotypes (B). **YOUTH IN FILM:**\ Narration is in voice of adults. Even if a young person directed the film, the narration is always by an adult. Crime: they tend to focus on violence (offenses) than property off Delinquency (crime): stereotypes "bad" kids (class, race, gender). Physically: menacing (persons up to no good, can't trust em). Markers (her research): WC kids tattoos and body piercings (American History X, Kids, Thirteen). Films: Social Class and Youth Crime (Stereotypes):\ offenders: poor or working-class youth vs middle/upper-class (cultural vs fun). Drug stereotypes: upper-class kids use drugs which is viewed as acceptable. Working-class kids: deal drugs (not acceptable) and morally wrong. Examples: Cruel Intentions, Traffic (Giroux, 2002)\ \[me\]: Rules of Attraction. Race/Ethnicity - Black youth and their communities are viewed as culturally bad (lawlessness and immoral) ("cultural"), "Blackness as a menace." Portrayed - as a real threat Cultural style and communication ("black street lingo"; hip hop) \[kids(1995)\]. Message: Black youth responsible for white delinquency. Through narratives of drugs, sex and violence. FILMS: GENDER (STEREOTYPES):\ Males: are viewed as a threat to public (same as CJS). Females: a sexual problem ("bad girls have sex") Explanation: usually around their sexuality and physical attractiveness: (as mythical monsters, evil manipulators, mad cows). Female aggression: framed in films as abnormal (violates assumptions of passivity). **DATE: 13-11-2024** **TOPIC: BULLYING** Dynamic: Perpetrators and targets tend to be on the same peer group (differing social status and social capital (access to cultural knowledge). Perpetrators - have high social/capital status Targets - have less social/capital status Classic Definitions: when person is exposed, repeatedly, to negotiate actions on the part of one or more persons Intentional acts that inflict (or attempt) injury, fear, discomfort or harm against another - commonly used in research. **PATTERNS OF BULLYING:**\ Age is important factor: happens most often in the early teen years (middle-school is peak). Pattern over time and decreases during HS. Interventions and education (HS vs MS) more effective in MS than HS. **TERMINOLOGY - BULLYING:** Verbal: through words and speaking that happens through - teasing, taunting, name calling (M/F). Physical: physical contact (hitting, kicking, punching, spitting, locking inside of a room or locker, pushing, shoving) (M, younger) (most likely recognized). Emotional: deliberate intent/act to emotionally hurt someone; induced stress, anxiety, depression, fear (F). Social (Relational): this affects relationships (gossips, exclusion from group, being ignored, spreading rumors, manipulation of relationships or friends) (F). Psychological: affect psychological well-being (loss of self-esteem, intimidation, torment, extortion) (M/F). Power: imbalance - by age, gender, status, grade, ability, etc. Deliberate: it is intentional and is aimed at a specific person, meant to cause harm or distress) M/F. Discrimination: through racism, sexism, ableism, etc (least considered in schools). Direct: face-to-face, you know who is bullying you. Indirect: behind the back (to others); cyber-bullying (online; done anonymously). MEAN CREEK (2004) - The hort film included discrimination, physical, verbal, emotional (less, but still there and psychological. **SCHOOL BOARD DEFINITION OF BULLYING, ON:\ **School importance - Defining bullying: No consensus across schools or within schools. CYBER-BULLYING Technology increases: methods of bullying Definition: when individuals use of electronics, through cellphones or the internet, o threaten and harass their peers Issues: anonymity, ease, fast distribution Identity plays an impotant role (anonymous, often unpunished) \[older/HS experience\]. **BULLYING AND THE LAW:** Criminal Harassment: repeated torment online fear safety (stalking included) \[increasing - F\]. Child pornography: sharing intimate photos under 18 years of age (even if subject). Publishing intimate images online or anywhere without consent (over 18) called ("revenge porn"). Utter threats and extortion: threaten to share - get something (\$ or other). Identity theft/fraud: create a fake online profile - ruin someone's reputation. (pretend to be someone else). Defamatory libel: spread rumour (affect reputation negatively). Assault and sexual assault: threats (online - where a person believes possible). **BULLYING AND SUICIDE:\ **Meta-analysis: analysis of previous research on a subject. 37 studies: bullying and suicide (Foremam, 2015) (correlation; not causation). 2SLGBTQI teens - greater risk of suicide. **BULLYING BY SEXUALITY:** Sample 11-18 year old, large school district in Southern US. Non-heterosexual or questioning (9%) (6.2% girls vs 2.5% boys - GLB). DATE: 15/11/2024 TOPIC: POLICING YOUTH THE SAINTS: Classisc stufy - criminology Studied two gangs (level1) over a 2 year period: The Saints and The Roughnecks (Troublemakers). The Saints - middle-class boys, who came from good family\'s and were active in school affairs. Delinquency (very delinquent) from drinking and driving to skipping school and consistently being involved with criminal activities, they were no arrest. Activities: would rather skip schools and drive vehicles on weekends, and got involved with vandalism and drinking. Nobody was aware of it, were apologetic and remorseful. School: Truant cheated on exams and papers and had excuses Police encounters (only 2wice). Future: all of them went to college, apart from 1 THE ROUGHNECKS:\ Were working class white boys. History: trouble with police and community (many arrests). Delinquency: (was same or less) fighting, theft, and drinking (not often), were arrested. School: good attendance (no cheating). Police encounters: all had encounters with the police multiple times. Future: only 2 went to college (as football athletes on scholarships). Question: why do we have this differential treatment between the two groups? From teachers, police and community members. Visibility: greater to community and police (Saints had access to vehicles to leave). Demeanour: toward authorities (Saints were polite, Roughnecls were hostile.) Bias: community and police (viewed Roughnecks as troublemakers and Saints as "good boys") - labelling effect. Reinforcement: selected friends to affirm self-image ("tough" kids in public will be noticed). Future: labeling from teachers, police and community - became self-fulfilling prophecy (labelling theory). POLICING: Critical role: begin process of formal response (as "front lines") - to suspected crime Aware of Crime: 1. Proactively: discover crime on their own H. Reactively: respond to reports from public (80%). Suspect's age: YJCA make clear, under 18 requires special requirements (suspects or witness). Youth (under 25): are more likely to be under surveillance **CONTACT WITH YOUTH:** Detention: anytime and officer stops anyone (can be based on a reasonable suspicion), are authorized to do so. Not just physical detainment: psychological restraint - when you belief that you are not free to go or keep moving. Section 9 (CR & F): Everyone has the right not to be arbitrarily detained or imprisoned - needs to be for good reasons (youth and adults). **CARDING AND STREET CHECKS:** Carding: police randomly stop people on the street with questions (may ask for ID or address, Grey area). Effects: police more likely to stop - racial/ethnic minorities (Worly, 2004). Banned in ONT - 2017 Rules (ON, Jan 1, 2017):\ Police required to tell people: they have right not to talk to them (incl youth) - except traffic stops, lawful arrests **SCREENING PROCESS:** 1. Gather Information: is it a crime or not? (more of Order maintenance) 2. Investigation: identify the suspect, gather evidence, determine If it's unfounded, etc. 3. Choice of disposition (action taken): caution warning, refer youth to EM, arrest, lay charges. 4. Formal: lay charges (or EM/ES): police report. 5. Decision for court: if charges are laid. **POLICE SCREENING (DISCRETION):** Decisions made: "police screening" - deciding to move forward into CJS or not. Discretion: decision to invoke (or not) legal sanctions - when circumstances are favourable Legal factors: bound by law (law dictates). Extralegal: outside the formal legal process (non-legal reasons). LEGAL FACTORS (PS):\ 1. Type of crime: seriousness of offence (more serious, less discretion) 2. Prior police contact: known to police (less discretion). 3. Prior record: convicted of crime previously (less discretion) 4. Prior Administrative Offenses: breaching order, failure to comply (less discretion). **\*EXTRALEGAL FACTORS:** 1. Race and Ethnicity: more likely stopped by police (Ind and Black youth, more likely to take action/less discretion). 2. Age of suspect: LT25 (less discretion). 3. Suspect's attitude/demeanour: negative and belligerent (Black and Indg youth are perceived to be "more difficult"; less discretion). 4. Suspect's appearance: subjective view. **DIVERSIONARY MEASURES:** 1. Formal name: Alternative measures - may or may not lay a charge (provincial variations) - YOA 2. Divert youth from justice system (court) 3. Informal measures (often warnings/cautions). 4. Type of crimes/offenders: non-violent minor offenses (eg theft) - first time offenders. 5. Benefits: expeditious, less costs, less court backlog. POLICE POWER: DMeasures: 1. Records of warnings are kept for youth 2. Reflects 3. Belief - some don't warrant charges/formal actions. 4. Understand - cautions can be effective (work of parents). 5. Future warning - more formal 6. Police contact - can act as etterent (esp to girls). DIVISIONARY MEASURES - YOA: 1. Declaration of principle 3(1)(D): "where it is not inconsistent with protection of society, taking no measures or taking measures other than judicial proceedings should be considered for dealing with young persons who have committed offenses." 3. Informal action - warning, involving parents, police station, refer to outside agency, file report. 4. Regionally: police didn't use many provinces (ON, they refused), PQ - used it the most and still continue to. 5. Problem: public pressure YOA - ONTARIO: 1. Refused and challenged under Charter Rights ("equal under the

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