CC0006 Notes - Sustainability: Society, Economy and Environment PDF

lOMoARcPSD|31017786 CC0006 Notes Sustainability: Society, Economy and Environment (Nanyang Technological University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college...

lOMoARcPSD|31017786 CC0006 Notes Sustainability: Society, Economy and Environment (Nanyang Technological University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 W1: Why everyone should know about sustainability Why sustainability? - Sustainability - Paris agreement, COP26 climate summit - World leaders meet at climate change summits to discuss actions against climate change - Paris agreement (2015) - First time that every country in the world agreed to work together to limit global warming; made financial commitments to limit global warming, preferably below 1.5deg - Updated in Glasgow in Nov 2021 - IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change) reports - Regularly produces assessment reports that provide the latest scientific, technical, and socioeconomic knowledge on climate change - UN Sustainable Development Goals (2015) ⇒ 17 sustainable goals; by 2030 - Singapore Green Plan ⇒ Greener and more sustainable Singapore by 2030 - NTU Sustainability Office - NTU to be carbon neutral (net-zero carbon emissions) by 2035 - Reduce energy, water use and waste by 50% by March 2026 (from 2011 baseline levels) - Why has sustainability become more important in recent years? ⇒ we’re starting to see and feel the e昀昀ects of climate change → brings a sense of urgency - Global warming - C02 is the main greenhouse gas - Human activity is adding C02 to the atmosphere through: - Burning of fossil fuels - Certain chemical reactions (eg manufacturing cement) - The only way that C02 is removed naturally from the environment is when it’s captured by photosynthesising organisms (eg plants) - The ocean also takes in C02 → makes the ocean acid (ocean acidi昀椀cation) - Industrialisation (late 19th century → present) has added on to greenhouse gas production Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Sea levels rising - Unsustainable lifestyle causing harm to - Nature, biodiversity, natural resources - Human societies, livelihoods, peace, security - Economic stability, risks - SDG (sustainable development goals) ⇒ established to - End poverty - Protect the planet - Promote peace and prosperity (by 2030) - Action in one area will affect outcomes in others (integrated goals) - Development must balance social, economic and environmental sustainability The complexity of sustainability - Long range of interconnected but unique problems - Multiple causes, hard to define “the problem” - No generalisable solution, no right or wrong, rather better or worse - Solutions tend to ramify throughout the system - Solutions can take a long time to evaluate Interdisciplinarity - Multidisciplinary ⇒ additive knowledge of di昀昀erent disciplines - Interdisciplinary ⇒ integration and synthesis of di昀昀erent disciplines - Transdisciplinary ⇒ across, between, and beyond disciplines The 3 perspectives - Society POV - Environmental justice and unequal distribution of e.g. climate change effects - Understanding human behaviour to implement changes for sustainability - Risk of political conflict or humanitarian crises due to climate change or environmental degradation Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Additional 200 hectares of nature parks for citizens (and wildlife) to enjoy - Planting 1mil trees across the island -- C02 absorption, shade, and cooler temp - Programmes to reduce human-wildlife conflict - Economic POV, examples - Needed: sustainability accountants, for sustainable capital investments - Integration of financial decision making and sustainability work - Stating potential social and environmental impact on profits - Effect on valuation, investment? - Circular economy: 3 basic principles - Eliminate waste & pollution - Circulate products and materials - Regenerate nature - Green economy in SG - Enterprise sustainability programme - Carbon tax - Home-grown innovation - Environmental POV, examples - Laws of nature govern processes of climate change and environmental degradation - Intrinsic value of nature - Human dependence on natural resources - Natural climate solutions, for eg, mangrove forests protect against storms and flooding - Tree planting - More green spaces - Education and appreciation for local wildlife - Limit pollution of water - Conservation initiatives.. Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 W2: No poverty, social inclusion, and equality SDG - Eradicate poverty, end hunger, reduce inequality No Poverty - 2015: more than 734 mil people in extreme poverty (live below the poverty line) → 10% of world’s population - Poverty: - Lack of income + adequate resources to ensure sustainable living - Implies hunger and malnourishment, exclusion, and lack of participation in decision making - Hence, ending poverty is SDG1 of 17 SGD developed by the UN - Target 1: by 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere - Definition of poverty: - International poverty line: costs of basic food for adequate nutrition, clothing, healthcare, and shelter needs in low-income countries - Difficult to establish due to costs differences between different countries - Purchasing power parity (PPP) estimates (to solve the above problem) - Theoretical exchange rate where you can buy the same amount of goods across di昀昀erent currencies ⇒ BIG MAC INDEX~~ - National poverty lines - Needs to be updated regularly to accurately reflect the changes: - New international absolute poverty line of $1.90/day (2011 PPP) - Fall 2022: the new global poverty line of $2.15/day (2017 PPP) - Not mere numbers: when we change the line, the number of people moving in and out of poverty changes - Profile of global poor - Sub-saharan africa - Poverty line: growing - South asia - Poverty rate = 30% - Middle east & north africa - Extreme poverty rate increased from 2-3% (2013) to 10% (2018) - The poor are predominantly rural, young, and undereducated - Woman are overrepresented among the poor globally - How to end extreme poverty? - Sub-saharan africa and extreme poverty - Overall economic growth (GDP growth rate) - Farm productivity - Urban productivity - National infrastructure Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Human capital investment - High-population density: rapidly growing population - Human development: child malnutrition - Primary education - Gender inequality - Governance: corruption - Challenges of climate change - Official Development Assistance (ODA) - ODA: government aid mainly donated by high-income countries that promote and specifically target the economic development and welfare of developing countries - Mainly used for economic development in the poor countries: build capital or capacity (e.g. pave roads, power grids, build clinics and schools, training and salaries for teachers and health workers, healthcare delivery) - Most effective use of ODA after 2000 - Public health: control AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis; lower mortality rate of children and mothers during pregnancy, especially in sub-saharan africa - Investment in health systems and social safety needs to combat the medical, social, and economic impact of the COVID-19 crisis Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 W3: Intro to food security and the global food system The Challenge: Feeding 10 billion people, eradicating hunger, and being healthy while also promoting economic growth, securing jobs, and saving the planet The problem with the global food system - In 2020, 2.37 billion people were lacking food or unable to eat healthy food on a regular basis - Key statistics - 22% of children under 5 (149.2 million) are stunted - Lack of proper diet, preventing normal growth and development - 6.7% of children under 5 (45.4 million) suffer from wasting - 5.7% of children under 5 (38.9 million) are overweight - More likely to develop high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, diabetes type 2 and more - Number of undernourished people in the world increased by about 150 million from 2019 to 2020 - 2014: 607 million - 2019: 650 million - 2020: 720-811 million - More than half of the world’s undernourished people are found in Asia - Pandemic amplified the already existing disparities in food distribution and those lacking food have suffered disproportionately from the consequences of the global pandemic - 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development - Adopted by all UN members in 2015 - Includes SDG2: End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture - Provide a shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and the planet now and in the future - World Food Programme was awarded Nobel Peace Prize in 2020 - For its efforts to combat hunger, its contribution to bettering conditions for peace in conflict-affected areas and for acting as a driving force in efforts to prevent the use of hunger as a weapon of war and conflict - Hunger and armed conflict - Armed conflict is the single greatest challenge in preventing zero hunger - To achieve zero hunger we MUST achieve zero war and conflict - Two-way interrelationship - Hunger can trigger violence; Violence and war can also cause hunger - Almost 60% of the world’s 811 million people live in areas affected by armed violence - Assistance helps people trapped in conflict, living under siege, and on the run after being forced out of their homes Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - It also can be the first step towards peace, helping to ease tensions that could escalate into conflict Why should we think about food security? - Climate change directly and indirectly threatens food production and livelihoods particularly in poor countries - - Agriculture contributes 24% of greenhouse gas emissions globally - Mainly comes from changes in land use like deforestation and loss of carbon from soils - Methane gas (cows) - Risk of conflict and migration as people’s livelihoods are threatened - Example: Sea-level rise in low-lying coastal areas, eg. Bangladesh and Vietnam - Prone to saltwater intrusion and increase salinity levels in agricultural lands - By 2050, the World Bank estimates that salinity issues in Bangladesh will most likely lead to significant shortages of drinking water and irrigation, and increased soil salinity, both in coastal and inland areas, could result in a decline in rice yield by 15.6% - Floods and water logging caused by cyclones and typhoons, floods and dry periods – need to build resilience against these - Vietnam very susceptible to rising temperatures and seasonal variability in rainfall - Conditions for Food Security (Four Dimensions) - When all people at all times have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life - Stability: A secure population, household, or individual access to adequate food at all times, protected from sudden shocks or cyclical events that can threaten availability of and access to food resources - Resilience in the food system, or a Plan B when things go wrong - Utilisation: Utilisation of food in conjunction with adequate diet, clean water, sanitation and healthcare to a state of nutritional well-being, demonstrating the importance of non-food inputs for food security - Food Availability: Availability of sufficient quantities and appropriate quality of food products that are either locally produced or supplied by imports, including food aid Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Pandemic caused disruptions in food supply chains - Food Accessibility: Adequate access to food resources for a nutritious diet - Governance and infrastructure, are there systems in place to protect vulnerable people? - Food Security in Singapore - Vulnerable to disruptions in food supply chain - Imports 90% of its food - Increased its food security - Three food baskets (strategies) - Diversify sources of import supply - Eggs from nearby countries like Malaysia but also Australia, New Zealand and Europe - Buffer against disruptions in one region - Boost local production to produce 30% of nutritional needs locally by 2030 (30 by 30) - Tripling domestic production compared to today - Vertical gardens, hydroponics, lab-grown meat - Help local companies expand and grow overseas so they can export food back home - Global food system - Is at the centre of global environmental problems, poverty, and human well-being - Rapid development of the food system since the mid-20th century has led to a complex web of consumption and production - Includes all the people, institutions, activities, processes and infrastructure involved in the production and consumption of food - Definition - “...the sum of actors, sectors and interactions along the food value chains – R&D, input supply, production, harvesting, storage, transportation, processing, retailing, wholesaling, preparation, consumption and disposal of food” How can the agri-food sector meet the rising demand from a growing world population while reducing its environmental footprint? - Agri-food industry - World’s largest economic sector - Employs half of the global workforce - Many of which are subsistence farmers and fishermen - Directly and indirectly responsible for 25 to 30% of global greenhouse emissions - Economic profit at the expense of our environment - Uses 69% of our freshwater and drives degradation of marine and terrestrial ecosystem, loss of biodiversity and deforestation - Vicious circle that threatens the very basis of our food system, our land and water - Developments in sustainability aim to provide the energy we depend on to survive without undermining the resource base upon which this system relies on - Demand for food: Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Predicted to hit 10 billion in the 2050s - In less than 30 years, need to support about 2 billion more than today - In addition to fixing the problem with over 2 billion people worldwide who already go hungry today - Economic growth tends to lead to an increased per capita food consumption - Observed in 9.7 billion people by 2050 - 50% more food per person is produced today than in 1961 - 2 billion people worldwide already suffer from hunger today - Increase in population, increase in individual demand for food, plus that it is higher quality meat that people tend to go for when they can afford to - Meat Consumption (per capita) has increased both due to increase in population and individual income - Too much consumption of red and processed meat is linked to health problems (including cancer) - A major contributor to greenhouse gas emissions and environmental degradation - Food’s environmental impact Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Based on a study that included 38,000 farms around the world - There can be large individual variations within the same food sector - The above study only looked at global warming effects and not eg, pollution - A stronger tendency for meat and dairy to have a larger impact on global warming than plants - The very big impact of meat and dairy comes from effects on land, such as deforestation and loss of carbon from soil - Contribution from storage and transport is much smaller - Agricultural land use’s impacts on the environment goes beyond greenhouse gas emissions - Single largest cause of biodiversity loss - Consumptive use of freshwater - Loading of nutrients pollution due to pesticides - Soil erosion and degradation - Water pollution - Depletion of freshwater resources - Strategies for producing more food sustainably - Historically, this was achieved through expanding agricultural land - Green Revolution in the mid-19th century: intensification with machinery, inorganic fertilisers and pestciides - TODAY: - More sustainable agricultural practices - Increase production with minimal expansion of agricultural land and to avoid degenerative practices on current agricultural land - Shifting diets towards more plant-based food - Food technology and reducing food waste - Food waste - According to Food and Agriculture Organisation, one third of all produced food were globally wasted in 2020 - Great losses during the production line, in shops, and where food is consumed – can potentially increase food supply by reducing waste, without necessarily increasing production - In Singapore - Circular economy – no end of product life, just the next stage in the circle - Using the larvae of black soldier flies, researchers at NUS have developed a method to convert food waste into nutritious compost which can then be used to grow local food, or even as animal feed - Closed food loop within Singapore How is plant-based food better for the environment than real meat? - Energy pyramid Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - - At every step as it goes up, energy is lost as heat through metabolic processes - Hence, more energy is available at lower levels - Land use - - Much more land is required per energy produced to produce meat than crops - Lab-Grown Meat - Singapore was the first country in the world to approve the sale of lab-grow meat to consumers in December 2020 - Multiple alternative protein start-ups set up in Singapore – growing industry Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 W4: Water - availability and sustainable management of water resources What are the Major Concerns? - Water stress levels around the world - Excessive water withdrawals - Pollution - Ownership of water - Private commodity or public resource? - 17 countries (¼ of the world’s population) face astonishingly high levels of water stress - India has more than 3 times the population of these other 16 extremely high stress countries combined - Groundwater resources severely overdrawn largely due to water being used for irrigation - 44 countries (⅓ of the world’s population) face high levels of water stress - Climate change can make precipitation and demand more unpredictable - Water and sanitation for all in the pandemic - Availability, quality and accessibility issues - Available water was unaffordable or inaccessible due to physical and/or social constraints - Eg. those living in arid or semi-arid environments faced persistent water shortage - In Brazil, many households experienced problems with water that limited handwashing ability even though they had abundant water resources - Elsewhere, handwashing was forgone due to unexpected shut offs or contamination - SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation - Access to adequate sanitation and hygiene for all - Improved water quality by reducing pollution, eliminating dumping, and minisming release of hazardous chemical and materials - Improve water use efficiency A global concern on water resource Water is a Human Right - Key Statistics - 1 in 3 people does not have access to clean drinking water - 2 in 5 people do not have a primary hand-washing facility with soap and water - More than 670 million people still practise open defecation - Climate change-related floods and droughts and other water-related disasters account for 70% of all deaths due to natural disasters worldwide - Water pollution Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Contaminated water kills more people than disasters and conflicts - An “invisible crisis” that involves water inequality and gender inequality, which will worsen when the planet warms - Deaths from diarrhoea caused by unclean drinking water are estimated half a million each year, with most of them being young children - More than 300,000 children die every year from unsafe water and poor sanitation in Africa - Africa has high risk of desertification, which will reduce the availability of freshwater and increase the risk of water inequality in the future - Gender inequality in the region is also prominent - More than 25% of the population must walk 30 min or more to collect water, a burden that falls on women and girls - This trend spans many developing nations and takes critical quality time away from income generation - Exacerbates income inequality and perpetuates the continuation of inequality - Water-borne disease such as Diarrhoea or Hepatitis A are preventable by simple treatment - However, 80% of the world’s wastewater are released without treatment due to poor water infrastructure - Water shortage concerns in global development efforts have overshadowed water pollution - Use of nitrogen as fertiliser has increased by more than 700% since 1960, with nearly all the growth occurring in Asia - Long-term exposure to non-point source pollution from agriculture during childhood results in lower earnings when the children enter adulthood - Vicious cycle and intergenerational poverty - The problem of plastic - Almost always ends up in the environment, eventually reaching oceans and the bodies of marine animals - While existing wastewater treatment can remove 90% of microplastics, nanoplastics are tiny enough to remain and disperse through a water column where organisms including humans can easily consume them instead of sinking or floating as large microplastics do - Competition for water demand for other essentials such as food production - Combined with increased consumption of calories and more complex foods that accompanies income growth in the developing world, it is estimated that agricultural production needs to expand by 70% by 2050 - Agriculture is the largest water user, but there is a shortage of funds to maintain irrigation facilities - World Bank proposed that water must be treated as an economic good Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Using financial instruments to encourage water savings and generate revenues to address both issues - BUT sophisticated economic instruments like market-driven pricing, volumetric charges and tradable water rights have low priority in many developing countries’ situations - New approaches to economic development and infrastructure planning are needed - A non-traditional threat: Water scarcity in urban areas - An unprecedented wave of population growth is forecasted by 2050 - More than 40% of residents in cities of the Global South lack quality water daily (mainly developing nations) - Lack of access to piped-in water means that families must buy water that needs financial cutbacks on other needs (food, electricity, education, healthcare, etc.) - Private sources or bottled water costs up to 50 times as much as piped- in sources - Climate change will cause water shortages for the additional urban residences - South Africa’s Cape Town’s water crisis in 2018 - Emphasised the increasing unpredictability of weather patterns - Cities like Cape Town would struggle to find enough water for the needs of their residents - Needs significant investment to secure adequate water supplies and safeguard functioning freshwater ecosystem for future generations - Transboundary water conflicts - Future wars will be over water - The matter of water diversion was a devastating issue of life and death - Lack of communication over natural resource can be a bad sign for cooperation - Downstream nations will resent the effect on their waters of the actions of upstream countries Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - - Water basins in South Asia, the Middle East and East Africa are major hotspots with many conflicts - Continued dialogue could be a way forward to mitigate the risk of violence - Nile region – lesser activities, reflective of past negotiations that have been successful - Specifics: - India and Bangladesh are particularly concerned with China’s thirsty North and water-diversion ambitions - Mekong basin water diversions – SEA countries - Highest risk of water conflicts, the tension between states and other freshwater basins are not necessarily signs of impending violence if there is a framework to resolve them - Water security and sustainable development framework - Since water cuts across many sectors, multiple actors are involved in managing it for their users Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - - The water security framework can become a powerful tool and reference to guide policies and financial decision to help countries address diverse water-related issues - Offer entry points to any one of the any 8 components, which are seen as having equal weights in the water security decision-making process - Water is the foundation to achieving many SDGs, and are mentioned explicitly in 3, 11, 12 and 15, which address health, sustainable cities, consumption and ecosystems respectively How to manage water resource: A Singapore Story - How innovations and investments in technology safeguard water - Singapore was ranked 170th among 193 countries for natural water resources in 2006 UN World Water Development Report due to small land area to catch and store the rain in our small island country - To balance need for land for development of city, western and northern parts of Singapore were designated as catchment areas (limited residential use) - Stormwater systems - Only the cleanest parts of the water will be extracted and pumped into the reservoir - Most polluted will simply bypass the collection facilities - Total of 17 reservoirs, including the largest Marina Catchment 10,000 ha - 5 rivers running through the city centre will meet before entering into the sea - 16th and 17th reservoirs (Serangoon and Punggol) were formed creating a dam at the mouth of the Punggol and Serangoon rivers in northeastern Singapore Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - - Catchment area currently makes up ⅔ of Singapore and will occupy 90% of Singapore’s land area by 2060 - Water demand and management - Demand is currently ~430 million gallons a day - Homes consume 45%, non-domestic consume 55% - By 2060, NEWater and Desalination will meet up to 85% of Singapore’s water demand - As water demand continues to increase in tandem with population and economic growth, we need to plan and implement water infrastructure well ahead - Four National taps serve to supply 100% of our population with potable water at the tap with 100% sanitation - Water from local catchments - Imported water - Historical agreements - In 1965, water source comprised solely water from reservoirs in central catchments – not sufficient to meet demand; had to hence depend on Johor - 1961 water agreement expired on 31st August 2011 - 1962 water agreement allows Singapore to draw water from Johor until 2061 Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - MAJOR CHALLENGE: Johor river fell to a historic low of 20% of its capacity due to climate change in 2016 - NEWater - High-grade reclaimed water produced from treated used water that if further purified using advanced membrane technologies and ultraviolet disinfection – safe to drink! - 5 NEWater plants at present can meet up to 50% of the nation’s current water needs - However, the use of advanced technologies makes producing NEWater a lot more expensive - Desalinated water - Most energy-intensive of the 4 taps - Uses reverse osmosis for desalination - Pushing seawater through membranes to remove dissolved salts and minerals - Cost is more than double that of NEWater - Three Cs (apply to each of the above taps) - Challenges - Capacity - Cost - In spite of the high cost of NEWater and Desalinated water, they are weather- independent, which will strengthen the resilience of our water supply against the effects of a dry weather cause by climate change - Closed the water loop - Imported water Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Conflicts between SG and Msia about how much SG should pay for water from Msia - Government aims to reduce reliance on this source by 2061 - Rainwater harvesting - ⅔ of our land is for water catchments - One of few countries in the world that harvest urban stormwater on a large scale for our water supply - HOW: - Rainwater is channelled from canals and rivers to the reservoirs for storage, then treated at water treatment plants to portable water homes and industries - Closed loop by recycling and reusing used water - Water is collected from the Deep Tunnel Sewerage System (DTSS) and underground sewers for treatment at water reclamation plants - Used water (by households) - Then sent to NEWater facilities for further treatment into ultra-clean, high- grade reclaimed water - Sometimes, such water is treated and discharged to the sea - NEWater is mainly used for the industries but is also used to top up reservoirs to enhance our water security - When completed, DTSS aims to shrink the land occupied by used water infrastructure by 50% and collect every used drop for treatment and purification - Desalination - Turns seawater into potable water - Currently investing in R&D to make this process less expensive - Adopt various approaches to improve our water consumption habits Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Water conservation tax (pricing) - Mandatory water efficiency labelling scheme - Suppliers must list water efficiency of their water fitting and devices on display so that consumers can make more informed choices - Singapore is very vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to it being a low-lying tropical state - Flood risk will increase as Singapore becomes more urbanised and downpours become more frequent and intense - Impacts - Dry spell - 13 Jan-8 Feb 2014: Singapore experienced a record 27-day dry spell, in which our desalination and NEWater plants had to operate near full capacity to meet our water needs - Plankton bloom - 2015: Hot weather caused a plankton bloom in the Johor Straits, resulting in mass fish deaths - Heavy rainfall - 2010, 2011 and 2013: Heavy rainfall contributed to major flash flood events in these 3 years, resulting in significant damage - Integrated urban and water planning to enhance the quality of our living environment (ABC programme) - Proper sanitation - Strict regulation of sewage and industrial wastewater - Integration of waterways with parks and gardens - Harmonising water features with our built environment – new community and recreational spaces - When people care more about our reservoirs and water bodies they will put in more effort in protecting them - Economic incentive: How we manage water are strong draws for people and investments - Also aids social cohesion and status Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 W5: Energy and climate change (I) background: technologies and policy instruments Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 Core Issues: - The World population is rising rapidly, the economy is growing too - The world wealth is highly unequal - There is close interlinkage between economy and environment Environment (extracted raw materials): Energy mineral resources Air, water and other natural resources Ecosystem biodiversity Economy (which results in pollution waste): Production -> Consumption Global Carbon Dioxide Emissions Present global carbon dioxide (C02) emissions are about 190 times higher than in 1850. Historically, started to exponentially increase since 2000 The concentration of atmospheric C02 is increasing at unprecedented rate The Greenhouse Effect Natural process that makes life possible -> the issue is that we artificially ramp up greenhouse effect 1. Most radiation (from sun) absorbed by Earth's surface and warms it Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 2. Some solar radiation reflected by Earth and atmosphere 3. Infrared radiation emitted by Earth's surface. 4. Some infrared radiation passes through the atmosphere. Some absorbed and re-emitted in all directions by greenhouse gas molecules 5. Warms Earth's surface and the lower atmosphere Effects of Global Warming - Global Warming leads to Climate Change Increase in C02 leads to… Increase in Temperature Increased frequency, intensity of hot extremes Marine heatwaves Heavy precipitation Reductions in Arctic sea ice, snow cover Which leads to… Negative effects Extreme weather Impacts food production Impacts water supply Impacts human health Statistics - Climate-fueled disasters killed 475000 people between 2000 and 2019 - More than $2.50 trillion of financial losses Top 10 countries in climate related deaths reported - Haiti - Indonesia - Myanmar - Pakistan Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - India - Russia - Sri Lanka - China - Iran - France Global Greenhouse Gases Emissions - IPCC scientific evidence -> C02 has contributed more than any other driver to climate change (1750 - 2011) - 43.89% of emissions comes from burning fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, oil) for electricity, heat generation - 25.71% of emissions Burning fossil fuels for road, rail, air and marine transportation Composition of the global emissions of major greenhouse gases - C02: 76% - Methane: 16% - Nitrous Oxide: 6% - Fluorinated gases: 2% Lifetime - C02 -> 100 to 1000 years - Methane -> More than a decade - Nitrous Oxide -> More than a century - Fluorinated gases -> Up to thousands of years Sustainable Development Goals Aim for a world which: - Economic growth is widespread - Extreme poverty is eradicated - Community strengthened through relevant policies that promote social trust and equal opportunities for everyone - Environment protected from human-induced degradation 3 Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 Sustainable development is… Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Important SGDs - SDG 1: End extreme poverty - SDG 7: Ensure access to affordable, sustainable and modern energy - end energy poverty - SDG 8: Decent work and economic growth for all - SDG 11: Make cities and human settlement sustainable - decarbonisation and sustainability - SDG 13: Take urgent action to combat climate change Energy Poverty - The lack of access to sustainable modern energy services and products - Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries have much higher per capita electricity consumption than global average - non-OECD countries are below global average Statistics on Energy Poverty - 2010: 1.2 billion ppl without access to electricity, 2020: 771 million ppl without access to electricity (there is a decrease) - Estimated 771 million people do not have access to electricity -> 95% live in Africa, Asia (World Energy Outlook 2020) Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - 10% of world (roughly 734 million) live in extreme poverty - 690 million undernourished - 14 million under age of five suffer from severe acute malnutrition Possible Actions to Tackle Climate Change (Note: there is no “magic key”, no magic solution) 1. Emissions mitigation and adaptation Efficient Emission Mitigation (requires innovation): - Energy-efficiency - Low carbon transition -> Clean energy generation a. Carbon capture and sequestration b. Phasing out inefficient coal power plants c. New tech: Super critical, blue hydrogen -> Fuel shift from fossil fuels to electricity Adaptation - Resilience towards climate change consequences Clean sources of energy Renewable and clean -> Solar Energy - Solar thermal (direct heating of water / air) - Concentrated solar thermal (generate heat, then electricity) - Solar photovoltaics (PV) (generate electricity using PV panels) - Passive solar heating (Naturally heat buildings) -> Wave Energy -> Tidal Energy -> Geothermal -> Wind Energy - Onshore wind (land based wind farms) - Offshore wind (wind farms in bodies of water) - Hybrid system: solar + wind Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 -> Hydropower - Run-of-river hydro - Storage hydro systems - Pumped storage hydro systems Not renewable, but still relatively clean - Biomass - Nuclear (but safety issues) - Hydrogen fuel Renewable Energy: Benefits and Constraints Multi-fold benefits Constraints - It will never run out - Natural resources availability and - Reduces emissions -> saves the intermittence environment - Storage issues - Saves money - Higher upfront cost - Potential to add green jobs, local - Space intensive: lots of land area employment required - Add electricity access to remote - Social acceptability locations - Mostly immune to market fluctuations a. stable energy prices b. Less dependence on imported energy Customised implementation plans and investment in R & D might help us Energy Efficiency Achieved by either… - Greater output per unit of energy input (increase input) or Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Use of technologies, systems or methods that require less energy for performing the same task function = eliminate energy waste (reduce waste) E.g. heating, cooling, ventilation of buildings, electrical appliances, transport…. There is potential for energy efficiency improvement in almost every sector of economy - Zero energy buildings - Efficient energy generation, distribution - Efficient vehicles and Long distance freight transport, maritime, shipping - Behaviour change: use less energy, adopt energy-efficient appliances, cut wastage Energy efficiency helps us achieve 3 wins: 1. Reduce GHG emissions 2. Reduce demand for energy imports 3. Lowering cost (household level, economy level) Statistics on Energy Efficiency - Share of renewables in global electricity generation 29% in 2020 (2% increase from 2019) Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 W6: Energy and climate change (II) policy instruments and economics of climate change Get ready, this topic sucks Policy instruments may help to: 1. Accelerate adoption of clean energy 2. Overall decarbonisation of economy 4 types of policy instruments for low-carbon transition Traditional policy instruments: Not as innovative, might not be enough 1. Institutional Approaches: the internalisation of negative impacts - Specification of liability (sue polluters) - Development of social responsibility (like energy labelling schemes for fridge, aircon, helps public make informed decision) 2. Command and Control (Regulatory): direct control over polluters - Emission license - Minimum energy-efficiency standards (certain appliances, minimum is 2 green ticks on energy labelling schemes - 2022) - Mandatory energy management practices - Building codes Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 Flexibility and economic incentive based measures: more innovative, will not harm the economy in the process, especially for the poorer countries 3. Market based tools - Cap and Trade 4. Non-market mechanism - Carbon tax Objective: put a price on carbon (for 3 + 4) - Polluter pays - Financial incentives to reduce emissions - Lowest-cost option *will be explored in depth later Business perspective: what are the 4 outcomes they can do, in view of these policies? 1. Reduce emissions, invest in clean and new technology 2. Discontinue polluting business activities 3. Do nothing and pay for pollution directly to govt (taxes) 4. Offset it by investing in emission reduction projects Cap and Trade: how does it work? Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Cap: A limit on allowable emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG): every company has a limit - Market is legally binding. Each company given marketable permits, can trade this “right to emit” - Any company that reduces emissions to below their cap can sell that “unused right to emit (in this case, Company A has 2000 tCO2 to sell) - Company that does not meet their target (in this case, Company B who exceeded by 2000 tCO2 can buy to make up the shortfall. Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 Carbon tax Step by step process 1. Direct price on carbon (carbon tax) is imposed: $/ton GHG 2. Companies can either reduce emissions or pay the carbon tax 3. Results in price rise, this extra cost passed on to customers 4. Consumers are incentivised to save energy, buy less energy intensive goods and services 5. Carbon tax collected is re-invested into climate projects, helping to make clean energy investment profitable / at same time, some of carbon tax reinvested to compensate consumers 6. Carbon intensive industry shifted to cleaner alternative 7. Emissions fall There is a 3-fold gain I) Tax means polluters pay for every ton of carbon pollution II) Financial incentive to switch to cleaner practices, clean energy (save the env while investing in clean energy) III) Govt generates revenues that is invested in other public policy objectives (funds for climate protection programmes) Worldwide Carbon Pricing Initiatives - 64 carbon tax and Emission Trading Scheme (Cap and Trade) initiatives implemented, scheduled or under consideration - Mostly in Europe, some in Asia Economics of Climate Change Rational Agent Theory - Most people do not have the willingness to pay today to eliminate the risk of climate damages over next 50, 100, 1000 years: no patience - Intergenerational issue - “The benefits of strong and early action far outweigh the economic costs of not acting” - The cost of taking action now around 1% of global GDP each year - If we do not act = at least 5% of global GDP each year, now and forever, might have no recovery at all - Also emotional cost: the regret of not doing anything when we could Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Every country is part of the problem, but many countries feel like they are not the source of the problem - Poor countries see the rich countries as the ones who created the problem - Not every country is emitting equally Top 10 emitters, Top emitters per capita differs - China tops the first, Qatar tops the second An ethical and political dilemma Stern Review (book by Nicholas Stern) Suggests: - Rich countries should take responsibility to reduce 60-80% emissions by 2050 - Developing countries should take significant actions too - Tackling climate change is a pro-growth strategy - Financial support to developing countries for low-carbon development - Effective global response with appropriate policies NO ONE COMMITS UNTIL EVERYONE COMMITS International collaboration: International agreement to limit global carbon emissions Impt: Paris Agreement 2015 - Limit global warming to well below 2, pref 1.5 degrees Celsius - Almost every country takes the target to reduce their GHG emissions, submit national plans by 2020, five-year cycle of submit, review, revise - Financial, technical and capacity-building support to countries in need - Mobilise USD 100 billion/year by 2020, extend this until 2025 - Enhanced international support to developing countries for adaptation. - Many developed countries aiming for net 0 GHG emissions by 2050 - Affected by changes in recent years Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 Criticism - Climate pledges not enough - Countries not on track to meet targets Feel like this part not v impt… not sure Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 W7: Pollution: air, light, noise and plastic (United Nations Environment Program) UNEP’s definition of “Pollution” - Presence of substances and heat in environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature, location, or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects 1. Air pollution 2. Plastic pollution (white pollution) 3. Noise pollution 4. Light pollution 1. Air pollution - Air pollution has been around since 17th century (London) - “Peasouper”: smog yellow brown in color - The great smog of London, 1952: severe air pollution event, caused by burning low grade coal to keep themselves warm -> led to clean air act in 1956 Issues with air pollution: - Causes stroke, heart disease, lung cancer, asthma, chronic and acute respiratory diseases - 7 million deaths due to exposure from both outdoor and household air pollution - Reduces crop productivity Impact on children’s health: exposure in womb or early childhood can lead to: - In 2016, ambient and household air pollution caused 543000 deaths in children under 5 years, and 52000 deaths in children 5-15 years - Household and ambient air pollution cause more than 50% of acute lower respiratory infection in children under 5 years in lower and middle income countries R/S with UN SDG Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - 3: Good health and wellbeing - 7: Affordable and clean energy - 11: Sustainable cities and communities 2. White Pollution: Plastic Pollution - Plastic do not break down for centuries - Great Pacific Garbage patch: Collection of plastic waste and debris in the North Pacific Ocean - Kuroshiro (Japan) Western Garbage Patch to Eastern Garbage Patch in California (USA) - Plastic production increased 20-fold over last 50 years - Involves plastics and microplastics (tiny particles of plastic measuring less than 5mm in diameter) - At least 51 trillion microplastic particles already in oceans - Personal care / cosmetic product can contain as much plastic as the packaging it comes in - Machine washing single synthetic garment releases more than 1900 microplastic fibres - All parts of the Ocean is polluted with microplastics - Macro (1cm to 100cm), Meso (1mm to 1cm) and Micro (1 micro meter to 1 mm), nano plastics (1 nano meter to 1 micro meter) - Recognised in UN SDG 14 - Tackling plastic pollution requires more than recycling: big organisations need to also redesign packaging - SG recycling rate in 2021: 4% How does it affect us humans? 1. Plastic bottles thrown into sea 2. Winds blow them towards each other, collide and release microplastic particles 3. Fish eat these microplastic particles 4. Get caught by fishermen 5. We consume these microplastics: can be potentially harmful (no concrete evidence) 3. Noise pollution - In SG, there are 218 workplace noise-induced deafness cases per year - Housing Development Board received 15,000 noise-related complaints in 2020 - Dragging of furniture, loud music, renovations, construction, koel birds… but these did not mean they broke any HDB rules - Safe sound pressure prescribed by WHO: 55 dB - According to recent study, enclosed areas, like estates’ sheltered linkways trap sound of surrounding area - Average noise level is 78 dB Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 Prolonged exposure to urban noise will lead to: - Cardiovascular disease - Stress and anxiety Prolonged exposure to noise of high volume will lead to: - Physical damage to the inner ear - Hearing loss (acute or permanent) Self Praise - Researchers from EEE, NTU have developed device that can reduce noise pollution entering buildings through open windows What can we do to reduce noise pollution for animals? Sea - Human noises (ships, oil + gas exploration, sonar) can cause hearing loss in dolphins, whales, porpoises - Interferes with ability to communicate, find food - When animals move to quieter areas, marine ecosystems disrupted - Sound travels faster in water = amplifying noise pollution underwater - So, we should establish quiet areas in ocean, develop quieter ships and machinery Land + air Air: - birds can change pitch or sing at night instead to be heard over human noise (transport, airports, gas wells) - Birds and bats can have trouble finding food in noisy areas: cannot hear prey Land: - Australian pobblebank frogs can usually hear each other up to 800m, but this is reduced to 14m in noisy areas (traffic, construction, cities) - North America: noise from highway traffic make it hard for prairie dogs to find food, hear predators, communicate - To help animals in L+A, we can develop quieter cars, reduce traffic speed limits, build noise reduction barriers around major traffic areas. Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 4. Light Pollution - From 1992 to 2012, light pollution has increased. - Effect of artificial light (like lampposts) insects drawn to street lights at night. - Colugo’s nocturnal hunting habits disrupted by light at night. - Turtle hatchlings confuse street light with moonlight, crawls towards the park connector instead of the sea. Concluding remarks - Effects of these pollutions tend to decline swiftly once sources removed, relatively easy to combat vs GHG pollution or persistent organic pollutants - Air pollution can increase as economic development increases, but it peaks. Then, economic development can help mitigate air pollution. Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 W8: Waste management: responsible consumption and production Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 Brief history on modern consumerism - First stage: 1500s - 1800s - New, exotic, and luxury goods (tea, coffee, spices, skills, etc…) - Mainly restricted to elites - Second stage: 1800s - 1880s - Industrialisation and the rise of a large urban middle class - Spread and use of manufactured goods - “Consumerism” - Third stage: 1880s - 1930s - “Consumerism”: an economic strategy that stimulated an increase in production of consumer goods - Surge in the circulation of goods helps improve the nation’s living standards - Fourth stage: 1930s - 1970s ⇒ consumerism in the post-war economy - Cold war - Idea that a modern democratic society required economy based mainly on production and distribution of consumer goods - Consumption and production would improve living standards, avoid social conflicts, an increase prosperity for all - Fifth stage: 1970s - now ⇒ consumerism in the post-war economy - Exponential increase in consumption associated with globalisation and digitalisation - Direct result is environmental crisis Consumption: from access to excess - Consumption and consumerism - Consumption: process of using up a resource - Consumerism: when you’re buying things that you don’t necessarily need for the sake of buying them - Excessive consumption activities - “Throwaway society” - Directly related to environmental damage - Contradiction between claims made by capitalism vs existence of economic, social, gender and racial inequalities - The consumption explosion - Accompanied by environmental degradation that endangers the very systems on which our future development depends - Material footprint ⇒ the total amount of raw materials extracted to meet 昀椀nal consumption demands - Key indication of the pressures placed on environments to support economic growth and satisfy people’s material needs - Global material footprint rose from 73.2b metric tonnes in 2010 to 85.9b metric tonnes in 2017; a 100% increment since 1990 - Material footprint per capita also increase at an alarming rate Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Electronic products - Help us improve living standards - Demand >>> capacity to recycle/dispose safely → growing mountain of e-waste - The e-waste explosion - Toxic substances (mercury, CFCs) contained in e-waste are more likely to be released into the environment - Mercury - Mainly found in computer monitors & light bulbs - Metal can be easily emitted into air and settle into water, or onto land and be washed into water - Human exposure to mercury is via ingestion of seafoods - People who are working in mining, electrical equipment manufacturing, waste management industries, and e-waste dumping sites have a higher risk of exposure to elemental or inorganic mercury through inhalation of vapour - CFCs - Temperature exchange equipment (found in fridges & aircons) can slowly release greenhouse gases (CFC) - Destroys UV shielding ozone - Adds to trapped heat in low atmosphere, causing earth to warm and climate and weather change - A tale of TWO hemispheres~ (NGL i dun rly unds this part but frm what im getting its j inequality or sumn) - Extraction of resources - Human labour - Dumping ground Consumption as waste making - Consumption and over-consumption - Drives & reinforces the problems with geographic inequality and environmental pollution - Too much to buy → too many products → throw them away as waste ⇒ MATERIAL ECONOMY (below:) - Production-consumption chain 1. Extraction 2. Production 3. Distribution 4. Consumption 5. Disposal - Linear system (above) is backfiring - Consumer’s dilemma - On one hand, you want to save the planet → end poverty, get rid of pollution, cut greenhouse gas emissions Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - On the other hand, you want to dress nicely.. Watch drama in new house.. blegh.. From limitation to overconsumption - Driving forces that influence consumption 1. Economic a. Income i. **MOST IMPORTANT DRIVING FORCE that determines a person’s power to consume ii. As income rises/falls, consumption spending also rises/falls iii. Large-scale increase in consumption can be linked to income 2. Social a. E.g. human interaction b. Humans are social beings; live among people who influence our buying behaviour c. Humans imitate other humans → wish to be socially accepted → in昀氀uenced by other people (family/friends, celebrities..) 3. Demographic a. Larger families spend >> smaller families b. E.g. age ⇒ families with college students spend di昀昀erently than single person households 4. Cultural a. Fundamental values, needs, wants, preferences, perceptions, and behaviours observed and learned from their family members and other people around them b. E.g. many people consume more around religious or cultural holidays 5. Psychological (human psychology) a. E.g. behaviour b. Not easy to measure, but powerful enough to in昀氀uence buying decision → based on consumer’s attitude towards a product and its brand image c. Companies design marketing campaigns to influence buying decisions psychologically - The curse of “faster, newer, cheaper” - Imitation intensifies and accelerates the cycle of manufacturer, purchase, use and discard, and compounds its environmental and social effects across the global logistic chains, from production site to store - The consumption and well-being - Once the basic needs have been satisfied, the eventual effect of additional income on happiness becomes negligible From overconsumption to sustainable consumption and production - UN SDG 12: Responsible consumption and production - Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns - So as not to jeopardise the needs of future generations Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - UN environmental programme: integrate environmental sustainability with economic growth and welfare by decoupling environmental degradation from economic growth and doing more with less - Resource decoupling and impact decoupling are needed to promote sustainable consumption and production patterns, and transition towards a greener and more socially inclusive global economy - Fully aligned with circular economic approach → builds upon value retention loops - Reduce by design → design of products and services using fewer materials per unit of production and/or during their use → INFLUENCES ALL STAGES OF THE LIFE CYCLE of a product/service - Consumption patterns of life of such products and services lead to less impact and less waste - Refuse, reduce, reuse, repair, refurbish, remanufacture, repurpose, recycle - 3 gains from reducing waste of food, energy, and water 1. (if integrated into the circular economy) Reducing food waste at various steps from farm to shop, will increase food availability without increasing food production or agricultural land area a. Increase food system’s efficiency b. Improve food security and nutrition Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 c. Contribute towards environmental sustainability 2. Reducing energy consumption at home doesn’t necessarily mean purchasing energy efficient products, it can also mean turning off lights and appliances when not needed 3. (to achieve environmentally sound management of water supply) Reducing release of chemicals and all waste to water sources to minimise the adverse impact on human health and the environment a. Apply sustainable economic models ⇒ products and materials are designed to be reused, remanufactured, recycled, or recovered → maintained in the economy for as long as possible b. Generation of (hazardous) waste should be avoided/minimised; greenhouse gas emissions should be prevented/reduced - SG’S ZERO WASTE MASTERPLAN ⇒ to build a sustainable, resource e昀케cient, and climate resilient nation - Adopt a circular economy approach to waste and resource management practices - Close the loop on waste streams - Shift towards more sustainable production and consumption - E.g. packaging-free grocery stores - NTU’s waste management efforts - NTU’s 15-year sustainability plan 1 in 5 people - In 2030: 1 in 3 people - Megacities (population >10 million) - (from 33 today) 43 megacities by 2030 (majority in Asia and Africa) - Very much concentrated in Asia and Africa - Some cities are shrinking - Mostly US and Europe, and a few countries in Asia (ie. Japan) - Not SG: SG has more control over our growth being both a city and a nation. where national-scale immigration can be adjusted to meet specific growth targets - Higher living standards result in a change in lifestyle which results in more consumption - Improved access to electricity, water and sanitation, or access to clean fuels for cooking and heating - Explains the rural to urban migration in cities - However, such access remain highly unequal - Informal dwellers who by definition, live in areas with low access to basic services (slum dwellers) - 1 in 3 people in urban areas globally – NOT a small number of people - Is it a good thing that the more urban a city is the higher the consumption? - Must reconsider framework of Doughnut Economics Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Doughnut is defined as a compass for human prosperity in the 21st century – Surely applicable to cities - Consists of - A social foundation - To ensure that no one is left falling short on life’s essentials - An ecological ceiling - To ensure that humanity does not collectively overshoot planetary boundaries - Between these two boundaries lies a doughnut-shaped space that is both ecologically safe and socially just – a space which humanity can thrive Main ways that cities depend on and impact our environment - How cities impact our environment - Urban growth impacts natural ecosystems - Cities may grow by 1.2km2 by 2030, mainly on forest and agricultural land - Air pollution, water pollution, waste management, etc. - Increases with increasing consumption - Large amounts of highly concentrated wastewater are generated in cities - Cities contribute to climate change (and are vulnerable to climate hazards) - Cities account for between 60-80% of energy consumption and generate as much as 70% of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions - How cities depend on our environment - Urban life depends on healthy ecosystems and their benefits (or “ecosystem services”) - Water, food, energy provision - Less visible benefits (eg. carbon sequestration – helps to mitigate climate change, pollination – grow our food, cultural heritage) Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Cities are particularly vulnerable to climate change and natural hazards due to concentration of people and infrastructure - Environmental Hazards - Example: Urban Heat Island - Phenomenon by which a city experiences warmer temperatures than surrounding rural areas - Temperature differences due to how well the surfaces in each environment absorb and retain heat - In denser cities, with fewer trees and more concrete, the higher the temperature - Has important public health implications during heat waves for example, and for everyday lives and economy - eg. In Singapore, with every single degree difference, our energy consumption will increase due to air conditioning - The more we reduce the heat island effect, the less energy we will have to consume - Example: Urban Flooding - Urban Flooding: Flooding experienced in urban areas due to the lack of drainage (lots of built-up areas means rain water cannot infiltrate or be stored) - Increase in rainfall intensity, which is expected in many regions, may increase flooding - Investments in drainage - Eg. In Singapore, PUB have invested in a new fleet of flood response vehicles capable of operating in water as deep as 17cm; stepping up forecasting and monitoring technology - Other important Urban Challenges - Providing infrastructure for access to basic needs: housing, education, health, … (see donut) - Inequality is rising in cities, both in developed and developing countries - 1 billion people live in slums (informal settlements) - Migration adds to the challenge, with most migrants being found in urban areas - As a result of conflicts and poverty in rural areas Explain why cities play a critical role in advancing the sustainability agenda - What is a sustainable city? - A city that manages all resources it is dependent on in ways that guarantee the well- being of current and future generations, ensuring distributional equity Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - - Example: Sustainable Singapore Blueprint - These kinds of blueprints are used by NGOs and cities as useful guidelines should they wish to implement similar solutions in their cities, or to replicate and adapt - Specific targets for 2030 - Indicators for green and blue spaces, helps with environmental, social and economic dimensions - To keep the population healthy - More green space helps reduce temperatures (urban heat island effect) and hence reduce energy required to cool our environment - Indicators related to buildings - Energy efficiency - Example: International Standard Organisation - Developed a standard that consulting companies, in particular, may want to use as a general guide - Provides guidance for sustainable development in communities, which also reflect various dimensions along the 3 pillars - Attractiveness - Environment - Resilient - Resource use - Social cohesion - Wellbeing - Targets from SDG11: Make Cities and Human Settlements Inclusive, Safe, Resilient and Sustainable – each has their own indicators for metrics - Target 11.6: By 2030, reduce the adverse per capita environmental impact of cities, including by paying special attention to air quality and municipal and other waste management - Indicators Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - 11.6.1: Proportion of municipal solid waste collected and managed in controlled facilities out of total municipal waste generated by cities - 11.6.2: Annual mean levels of fine particulate matter (eg. PM2.5 and PM10) in cities (population weighted) - Target 11.7: By 2030, provide universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible green and public spaces, in particular for women and children, older persons, and persons with disabilities - Target 11.a: Support positive economic, social and environmental links between urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening the national and regional development planning Discuss solutions to enhance sustainability of cities Challenges Solutions Increased pressure on environment due Promote sound urban planning, sustainable to rapid and unplanned urbanisation building, low-carbon transport, green spaces and sustainable lifestyle - Eg. Singapore’s investment in new MRT lines Our cities account for up to 80% of Invest in renewable energy, waste energy consumption and 70% of global management, sustainable and green waste and carbon emissions infrastructure - Through incentives or regulation for some industries eg. pushing industries to install solar panels - Waste management is dealt with with diverse recycling initiatives Due to high concentration of people, Protect cities from environmental and infrastructure, housing and economic climate threats activities, cities are particularly - Build resilience vulnerable to climate change and natural - A sound Disaster Risk disasters Management plan will help with achieving these goals - Singapore has low hazard levels for most hazards that threaten SEA, yet sea level rise is an increasingly key issue Resilient city: A city and its dwellers should continue to thrive even in the face of a disaster - Protecting Cities with Blue and Green Infrastructure - “Nature-based solutions” Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - An area or system made of naturally occurring or engineered ecosystems (eg. forests, green roofs, road trees) and managed to provide benefits for people and the environment - Reducing the urban heat island effect - By using more vegetation, careful urban planning can reduce this effect – not retaining so much heat during the day - Important part of the greening strategy in the Singapore Green Plan, given Singapore’s tropical climate - Reducing urban floods - Active, Beautiful, Clean Waters programme (ABC) - Benefits related to water: - Reduce quantity of runoff produced when it rains, reducing chances of flooding - Improve quality of runoff which will eventually reach our reservoirs - Benefits related to aesthetics and recreation - Eg. Revamping of Bishan-AMK park - Application: Downscaling the Doughnut to the City - Case study of Amsterdam - Useful to consider the 4 perspectives Social Ecological Local What would it mean for the What would it mean for Amsterdam people of Amsterdam to thrive? to thrive within its natural habitat? Global What would it mean for What would it mean for Amsterdam Amsterdam to respect the to respect the health of the whole wellbeing of people worldwide? planet? - Everything is connected: Housing policy (one dimension) relates to many urban dimensions through the local, global, social, ecological lenses - Technology is part of these dimensions but is not the only part - Solutionism: Prevalent in urban thinkin; Having faith that technology is the end- all to our problems - Changing our behaviour and institutions is also very important - It takes time, collaboration and engagement with different stakeholders and communities to identify the most relevant strategy There is not one recipe for sustainable cities - Cities are complex systems - Multiple actors, structures, processes and functions - But some common opportunities - Cities can help change individuals’ behaviour - Eg. improving public transport so that people use their cars less Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|31017786 - Cities are innovation and creativity hubs - Social or technological progress - Concentration of financial resources - Denser environments are often easier to cool down or heat up through centralised systems, and easier to transport goods and people (expend less energy) - Cities can benefit from scaling effect - Economies of scale (lower per capita resource use eg. efficient use of infrastructure) Downloaded by Karun Kowsik ([email protected])