Principles of Teaching 2 PDF

# Chapter 5 Research-Based Teaching and Learning in the 21st Century ## Principles of Teaching 2 ### Learning Outcomes - By means of a graphic organizer and a skeleton prose (ordinary outline), present the nine categories of research-based, effective instructional strategies - Identify competencie...

# Chapter 5 Research-Based Teaching and Learning in the 21st Century ## Principles of Teaching 2 ### Learning Outcomes - By means of a graphic organizer and a skeleton prose (ordinary outline), present the nine categories of research-based, effective instructional strategies - Identify competencies/content and performance standards in the K to 12 Curriculum that can be attained with the use of selected relevant instructional strategies ### Introduction - The demands of the 21st century are solving problems flexibly, thinking critically and creatively, using knowledge and skills in new situations, collaboration and communication skills and technology literacy. - The principles of teaching for the 21st century identified by Suzanne Donovan and John Bransford (2005) should guide teaching in the 21st century. 1. Teachers must address and build upon prior knowledge to promote student learning. Students come to the classroom with prior understandings and experiences. 2. In order to develop understanding and effectively retrieve and apply knowledge in real-world contexts, students must have factual and conceptual knowledge. 3. Students learn more effectively when they are aware of how they learn and know how to monitor and reflect on their own learning. - These principles are reflected in the nine (9) categories of instructional strategies which were identified through a meta-analysis of instruction conducted by Marzano (1998). These nine (9) categories of institutional strategies were found to be highly effective as proven by their effect sizes. >* An effect size expresses the increase or decrease, on standard deviation units, in the achievement for an experimental group. An effect size of 1.00 means 34 points percentile difference that favors students instructed under the experimental conditions. ### The Nine Categories of Instructional Strategies | Category | Description | |:---|:---| | Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback | Provide students with a direction for learning and information about how well they are performing relative to a particular learning objective so they can improve their performance. | | Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition | Enhance students' understanding of the relationship between effort and achievement by addressing students' attitudes and beliefs about learning. Provide students with abstract tokens of recognition or praise for their accomplishments related to the attainment of a goal. | | Cooperative Learning | Provides students with opportunities to interact with one another in ways that enable their learning. | | Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers | Enhance students' ability to retrieve, use, and organize what they already know about a topic. | | Non-linguistic Representations | Enhance students' ability to represent and elaborate on knowledge using mental images. | | Summarizing and Note Taking | Enhance students' ability to synthesize information and organize it in a way that captures the main ideas and supporting details. | | Assigning Homework and Providing Practice | Extend the learning opportunities for students to practice, review and apply knowledge. | | Identifying Similarities and Differences | Enhance students' ability to reach the expected level of proficiency for a skill or process. Enhance students' understanding of and ability to use knowledge by engaging them in mental processes that involve identifying ways in which items are alike and different. | | Generating and Testing Hypotheses | Enhance students' understanding of and ability to use knowledge by engaging them in mental processes that involve making and testing hypotheses. | >*Adapted from Manzano J. (1998), A theory-based meta-analysis of research on construction, Aurora, Co Mid-continent Research of Education and Learning ### Creating the Environment for Learning - One of the most important influences on student achievement is the relationship between the teacher and students (Hattie, 2009). Goodwin (2011) describes teachers who create a conducive environment for learning as warm and empathetic and establish a sense of community within the classroom where they respect students and students respect them and one another. Essential in creating a favorable learning atmosphere is a growth mind-set where teachers' words and actions make it clear that student achievement depends on hard work and effort and is not cast in stone by past performance (Dean, et al, 2012). This motivates students to work harder. As students work harder, their feeling of self-efficacy increases. - The first three instructional strategies when applied will lead to a positive learning environment. They are: - Setting objectives and providing feedback, - Reinforcing effort and providing recognition and - Cooperative learning. - **Setting objectives.** There are four recommendations for setting objectives in the classroom: - Set learning objectives that are specific but not restrictive. - Communicate the learning objectives to students and parents. - Connect the learning objectives to previous and future learning. - Engage students in setting personal learning objectives. Make them own the learning objectives. This makes them self-directed learners (Dean, et al, 2012). - **Providing feedback.** How should feedback be provided? Here are recommendations from Ceri B. Dean, et al. (2012): - Provide feedback to make students understand what was correct and what was incorrect and to make clear what students need to do next. - Provide feedback in time to meet students" needs. - Feedback should be criterion-referenced. Feedback should make students see their performance in relation to the expected outcome or the learning target and not in relation to the classmates' performance. - Engage students in the feedback process (Dean, et al, 2012). This way, they are made to reflect on their own performance and exchange feedback with peers. This can help them become lifelong learners. - **Reinforcing Effort.** What can reinforce student effort? Teach student that success is within their control because it comes as a result of their effort not because of other people or of luck. Numerous stories about people overcoming odds and becoming successful through their determination and effort are found in TV broadcasts, internet, newspapers and magazines. As guest speaker in graduation ceremonies, I always say: "I know of only one formula for success: hard work, hard work, hard work!". - **Providing Recognition.** What can be done to provide recognition? Here are two recommendations from Dean, et al (2012): - Promote a mastery-goal orientation. Teachers should recognize effort in relation to learning outcomes not to other students' performance. In other words, the emphasis is on criterion-referenced and not on norm-referenced assessment. - Provide praise that is specific and aligned with expected performance and behaviors. Great and very good are quite general compared to "Congratulations, you struggled with using a microscope properly, but you asked questions when you didn't understand, and now your efforts are paying off." Teachers must be generous with genuine praise. - **Cooperative learning.** Teachers are strongly encouraged to use cooperative learning to lay the foundation for students' success in a world that depends on collaboration and cooperation. In the layers of a complex world, the students of today need to possess not only intellectual capabilities but also the ability to function effectively in an environment that requires working with others to accomplish a variety of tasks, claims Thomas Friedman (2006), the author of the The World Is Flat. Learning atmosphere is more favorable when students work together rather than compete and work against one another. For an effective cooperative learning, keep group size reasonably small. Cooperative learning has been discussed in Principles of Teaching but for the purpose of emphasis, Table 1 is given below: | Element | Purpose | Instructional Implication | |---|---|---| | Positive Interdependence | To ensure that success by an individual promotes success among other group members. | Establishes a cooperative goal structure and equally distribute resources; helps students develop a sense that they "sink or swim" together. | | Face-to-Face Promotive Interaction | To encourage and activate individuals" efforts to achieve and help one another learn. | Encourages discussion among group members and teach students about the importance of effort and how to provide others with recognition for their effort. | | Individual and Group Accountability | To ensure that all members contribute to achievement of the goal and learn as individuals. | Establishes an optimal group size and include individual assessments; helps students understand that each person needs to contribute to the success of the group. | | Interpersonal and Small-Group Skills | To ensure that all members clearly understand effective group skills. | Provide initial and ongoing instruction on effective group skills such as communication, decision making, conflict resolution, leadership and trust. | | Group Processing | To promote group and individual reflection for maintenance of group effectiveness and success. | Establishes dedicated time for group reflection by providing structures such as specific questions, leaming logs, or sentence stems that focus on how well the learner is functioning and how to function even better. | >*Source: Ceri B. Dean et al. (2012), Classroom instruction that works. VA: ASCD ### Helping Students Develop Understanding - It is not enough that a positive learning atmosphere is created. Students must be helped to develop understanding. The McRELs meta-analysis study (1998) found the following as effective strategies: - Cues, questions and advance organizers; - Non-linguistic representations and - Summarizing and note taking. - To develop understanding among students, at the outset, the focus of the lesson or the unit must be given explicitly. This can be accomplished with the use of cues, questions and advance organizers. #### Cues, questions and advance organizers - **Use explicit clues.** This can be done by: - Giving a preview of what is to be learned perhaps with the use of pictures; - Explaining the learning outcomes of the lesson/unit, and - Providing a list of guide questions that they should be able to answer at the end of the lesson/unit. - **Ask inferential questions not fact questions.** Inferential questions are questions that can be answered through analysis and interpretation of the text. They can be answered by reading between the lines. **Example: Inferential Questions:** 1. How do cattails disperse their seeds? 2. What conditions are needed? Dry weather? Wind? Water? - **Ask analytic questions.** Below are examples of analytic questions given by Dean, et al. (2012): | Category | Example | |---|---| | **Analyzing Errors** | What are the errors in reasoning in this information? How is this information misleading? How could this information be corrected or improved? | | **Construction Support** | What is an argument that would support this claim? What are some of the limitations of this argument or the assumptions underlying it? | | **Analyzing Perspectives** | Why would someone consider this to be good (or bad or... neutral)? What is the reasoning behind this perspective? What is an alternative perspective, and what is the reasoning behind it? | **Figure 5. Examples of Analytic Questions** - **Use advance organizers.** The word advance makes clear that the graphic organizers are meant to give the students what they are expected to learn before the real teaching-learning takes place (Graphic organizers are different from advance organizers which are discussed in non-linguistic presentations). There are four (4) formats of advance organizers, namely: - Expository, - Narrative, - Skimming and - Graphic. - An expository advance organizer describes in written or verbal form the new content the students are about to learn. An anticipation guide (also called prediction guide) is one example of an expository advance organizer. An anticipation guide or prediction guide gives students clues about what's coming next that helps them set a purpose for learning, an important aspect of motivation. Here are two (2) examples: **Figure 6. Anticipation Guide** **Student Name:** Read each statement and circle A if you agree with the statement or D if you disagree. Remember that this is not a test, so make your best guess. | Statement | Agree / Disagree | |---|---| | The probability of zero means an event is impossible. | A / D | | When studying probability, you may be asked to play with dice. | A / D | | The sum of the probabilities of all the possible outcomes equals one. | A / D | | Two mutually exclusive events can happen at the same time. | A / D | | You should understand fractions before beginning the study of probability. | A / D | **Figure 7. Sample Prediction (Anticipation) Guide on Probability** >*Adapted from Roleah Cosset Lent. (2012). Overcoming Textbook Fatigue. VA: ASCD) - A narrative advance organizer presents lesson in a story form to make relevant connection to the lesson. **Example: The lesson in Home Economics is food preservation.** In this lesson, the teacher wants that children get skilled in food preservation. She starts her lesson with this story: I went to the province last summer vacation. I saw a lot of mangoes just falling' from the tree left to rot on the ground. It was the season of tomatoes and perhaps there was an oversupply and like the mangoes, so many tomatoes were also left rotting where they were. When it is not tomato season, the price of tomatoes is sky high. A lot is wasted. Is there a way to preserve them and perhaps even make money out of them? - A narrative organizer can also be in the form of a video clip of a material relevant to the lesson. - **Use skimming as an advance organizer.** Skimming is the process of quickly looking over a material to get a general idea of what the material is about before reading it fully. Providing questions to guide the skimming process helps students access relevant prior knowledge. Block, et al (2002) describes skimming as "tilling the text". - To "till the text" is to read all subheads and points of emphasis and note content flow. Skimming helps students identify key points and get an idea of what they are about to learn. **Example** The Araling Panlipunan teacher asks her class to skim the next unit for them to quickly get a sense of the content of the next lesson. She provides them with the following questions to guide their skimming: - Based on the title of this unit and what you already know, what do you think will be included in this unit? - What is the flow of the content of this unit? - What are the major ideas in this unit? - What do the pictures tell you about the content of this unit? - **Using advance organizers at the beginning of a lesson or unit focuses learning on the content to communicate what students are expected to learn.** The use of cues, questions and advance organizers can arouse their curiosity and interest in the lesson. The use of inferential questions can help develop critical thinking. Advance organizers can help students use their background knowledge to learn new information. Advance organizers can serve as mental scaffolding or "ideational scaffolding", Ausubel's term to learn new information. They activate prior knowledge which is critical to learning of all types. All these help the student organize incoming information. ### Non-linguistic Representations - Information is stored in memory in two ways: as words (linguistic) or as images (non-linguistic). Non-linguistic representations dwell on imagery form. What is imagery? It is "expressed as mental pictures or physical sensations such as smell, taste, touch, kinesthetic association and sound" (Richardson, A. 1983. Imagery: Definitions and types. In A.A.Sheikh (Ed.) Imagery: Current theory, research and application (pp. 3-42). New York: Wiley). - To help students develop understanding of the lesson, make use of non-linguistic representations. Non-linguistic representations include: - Creating graphic organizers, - Making physical models and manipulatives, - Generating mental pictures, - Creating pictures, illustrations and pictographs and - Engaging students in kinesthetic activity. (You learned several of these in Principles of Teaching 1). 1. **Graphic organizers.** Six types of graphic organizers that are commonly used to organize information are: - Descriptive, - Time-sequence, - Process/cause-effect, - Episode, - Generalization/principle and - Concept patterns. - A descriptive graphic organizer gathers facts about a topic. The facts do not necessarily follow a specific order. Here is an example. **Figure 8. Examples of Graphic Organizers** - A time sequence graphic organizer organizes information in a sequential or chronological order. - A process/cause-effect graphic organizer organizes information that leads to an outcome or show steps to an end result. - An episode graphic organizer combines multiple ways of organizing information about a specific event. - A generalization graphic organizer presents the details and the generalization arrived at. - A concept pattern organizer organizes information or declarative knowledge into patterns to show relationships and connections of concepts. ### FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION AND RESEARCH 1. Using skeleton prose and webbing (non-linear) as formats of outlining, outline the topic "Non-linguistic presentations" presented in the foregoing paragraphs as a way to help students develop understanding of the lesson. Between the two outline formats, which helped you understand the lesson on summarizing and outlining better? Why? 2. Research on Cornell Note Taking System approach as a structured, common-sense way of note taking. ### Assigning homework and providing practice - Two other ways to help students develop understanding of their lessons is by providing them opportunities to develop mastery of their lessons through homework and practice. - In the last few years, there have been mixed research reviews on the effectiveness of homework (Marzano & Pickering, 2007) but teachers continue to give homework anyway. To ensure that homework works: - Design homework that provides students with opportunities to practice skills and processes in order to increase their speed, accuracy, fluency and conceptual understanding or to extend their learning on a topic already learned or to learn new content; - Provide feedback on homework; - Align homework to the learning outcome or objective. In other words, homework should be meaningful. It should never be used as a form of punishment. - For practice to produce desired results, design practice sessions that are short, focused and distributed over time. Frequent, short practice sessions in the early phase of the learning process result in the greatest amount of learning, which gradually decreases as students refine their knowledge and skills (Dean, et al, 2012). See Figure 9. **Figure 9. Massed and Distributed Practice** >*Source: Adapted from Dean et al. (2012). Classroom instruction that works. VA: ASCD ### FOR DISCUSSION, ACTION AND RESEARCH 1. Research on DepEd's Memo 392, s.2 2010 on homework/assignment. Is DepEd against homework? Explain your answer. Do you agree with DepEd’s stand on homework? Why or why not? 2. A study made by Wagner, Schober and Spiel (2008) found that lower-performing students spent more time on homework than higher-performing students did. How can you explain the finding? What is the implication of this to the giving of homework? 3. Form a small group of students to conduct a survey in class. The survey should find out the acceptability of giving homework and reasons for the acceptability and non-acceptability. Present your findings to the class. 4. Form another small group to conduct research on homework completion strategies and support programs organized by schools to make effective homework practice. Present your findings to the class. ### Helping Students Extend and Apply Knowledge - Effective learning is proven in students’ ability to apply and extend knowledge. Two research-based strategies on extending and applying knowledge are: - Identifying similarities and differences and - Generating and testing hypotheses. ### Identifying similarities and differences - Dean, et al (2012) give four strategies in identifying similarities and differences, namely: - Comparing, - Classifying, - Creating metaphors and - Creating analogies. - **Comparing is showing similarities and differences.** - e.g., Compare Problem-Based Learning (PBL) and Project-Based Learning (PrBL). Before students can cite their similarities and differences, they have to have a thorough understanding of PBL and PrBL. Thus comparing the two is higher in level that explaining PBL and PrBL. - **Classifying is the process of organizing groups and labeling them according to their similarities.** - e.g., Classify the theories of learning. The theories of learning can be classified as behaviorist, cognitivist and constructivist theories. But before students can classify them as either behaviorist, cognitivist or constructivist, the students must have a thorough understanding of each of them. - **Creating metaphors is the process of identifying a general or basic pattern in a specific topic and then finding another topic that appears to be quite different but has the same general pattern (Dean et al, 2012).** - e.g., "A teacher is a bridge that collapses after the children have crossed." - "The Lord is my shepherd." – Psalm 23 - "All the world’s a stage." - As You Like It, Shakespeare - The students can come up with fitting metaphors only after mastery of a lesson. - **Creating analogies is the process of identifying relationships between pairs of concepts or between relationships.** - e.g., Piaget: cognitive theory:: Kohlberg: moral development theory - hot: cold:: day: night. - sword: warrior:: pen: writer - doctor: diagnoses illness:: detective: investigates crimes - atom: electrons:: sun: planets - It is impossible for students to come up with metaphors without mastery of concepts. The use of metaphors is an application and extension of lessons mastered. ### FOR ACTION - Per specialization, give one example of a metaphor in any of the competencies found in the K to 12 Curriculum Guide of your specialization. ### Generating and testing hypotheses - When students generate and test hypotheses they actually apply principles learned. They deepen their understanding of the principles upon which they base their hypotheses. Generating and testing hypotheses are applicable not only in the Science class. When students make predictions based on evidence or ask "If I do this, what might happen?", they are engaged in the process of generating and testing hypotheses. - An example in a Grade 3 Science class: Will it rain or not rain today? What evidence supports your answer? - In the TLE-Home Economics class, you ask: What might happen to the pancake if I added a half cup of water more to the dough? The students will be asked to explain their hypotheses and proceed with the cooking of the pancake with a half cup of water added to the usual formula to determine which hypothesis is correct? - In the Art class, you ask: "What results if you mix the colors green and yellow?" Each one will give and explain a hypothesis, then the class proceeds with the process of mixing green and yellow to find out which hypothesis is correct. - Generating and testing hypotheses can also be applied in problem solving. A problem is anything that needs an answer or explanation. Here is a simple problem: Does the eating pattern of the children in class include natural juice? The pupils will give a hypothesis based on their observations, then gather information to determine if their hypothesis is correct or wrong. - In the Science class, a problem may call for an experiment. Here is an interesting example. You begin with a demonstration like the one described below: **The Magic Ketchup Experiment!** You can make a pack of ketchup float and sink at your command while it's sealed inside a bottle! **You will need:** * A 1 liter plastic bottle * Ketchup pack from a fast food restaurant * Salt **What to do:** 1. Remove any labels from a 1 liter plastic bottle and fill it all the way to the top with water. Add a ketchup pack to the bottle. 2. If the ketchup floats, continue adding salt, a few tablespoons at a time until the ketchup is just barely floating to the top of the bottle. 3. If the ketchup sinks in the bottle, add about 3 tablespoons of salt to the bottle. Cap it and shake it up until the salt dissolves. 4. For the floating ketchup pack, simply screw the cap on the bottle and squeeze the sides of the bottle hard. If the ketchup sinks when you squeeze it, and floats when you release it, congratulations, you're ready to show it off. If it does not sink when you squeeze it, try a different kind of ketchup pack or try a mustard or soy sauce pack. 5. Once it is consistently floating, make sure the bottle is filled to the top with water, and then cap it tightly. 6. Now squeeze the bottle. The magic ketchup should sink when you squeeze the bottle and float up when you release it. - This experiment is all about buoyancy and density. Buoyancy describes whether objects float or sink. This usually describes how things float in liquids, but it can also describe how things float or sink in various gasses. - How does it work? You will need to review them on the lesson on density and buoyancy. This can help. - Density deals with the amount of mass an object has. Adding salt to the water adjusted the water’s density to get the ketchup to float. Sounds complicated? It is, but here’s the basics on the ketchup demo…there is a little bubble inside of the ketchup packet. As we know bubbles float, and the bubble in the ketchup sometimes keeps the heavy packet from sinking. When you squeeze the bottle hard enough, you put pressure on the packet. That causes the bubble to get smaller and the entire packet to become MORE DENSE than the water around it and the packet sinks. When you release the pressure, the bubble expands, making the packet less dense (and more buoyant) and, alas, it floats back up. This demonstration is sometimes known as a CARTESIAN DIVER. **Make an Experiment (Divide the class into small groups. It may be good to have two (2) groups to work on each problem for comparison).** **Questions:** 1. Do different food packs (ketchup, mustard, soy sauce) have the same density? 2. Does the temperature of the water affect the density of the ketchup packet? 3. Does the size of the bottle affect how much you have to squeeze to get the packet to sink? - The process of generating and testing hypotheses can also apply in an investigation process. In Edukasyon sa Pagpapakatao, the students were asked to investigate why most Catholics are against the Reproductive Health Law. Before they gathered information from various sources they state their hypotheses. It is these hypotheses that will govern their data-gathering process. - In all of these instances where the students are asked to generate hypotheses, the students are made to explain why they should forwarded such hypotheses. These hypotheses actually prove that students can extend and apply whatever related principles they learned. ### FOR DISCUSSION AND ACTION: - Per specialization and based on the K to 12 Curriculum Guide, come up with an example of problem that can be answered by an experiment, research and/or an investigation. ### SUMMARY - To help students learn for mastery the teacher must ensure mastery by seeing to it that he/she creates a positive learning atmosphere develops thorough understanding of the lesson not only memorize or recall it, and that by giving opportunities to students to extend and apply their learning. - There are nine effective instructional strategies backed up by research. - The nine effective instructional strategies when grouped, can be categorized into three: - Creating the positive environment for learning, - Helping students develop understanding and - Helping students extend and apply knowledge. - What are effective ways of creating positive environment? Proven effective are: 1) setting learning objectives and providing specific feedback in relation' to the objectives, 2) reinforcing student's individual effort which is the mo - t reliable way to achievement and providing genuine recognition and 3) employing cooperative learning. - To help students develop understanding of lessons learned, the following strategies were found to be effective: - Focusing on what is important by giving explicit cues, asking questions and advance graphic organizers; - Using non-linguistic representations such as graphic organizers, physical models or manipulatives, pictures, mental pictures, illustrations, pictographs and kinesthetic activities; - Summarizing and note taking and - Assigning meaningful homework and providing correct practice. - Two ways were given to help students extend and apply their learning. These are: - Identifying similarities and differences and - Generating and testing hypotheses. - To identify similarities and differences, the students can make use of comparison, classification, metaphors and analogies.