Destination C1 & C2 Grammar & Vocabulary PDF

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Destinationc1 &C2 Grammar & Vocabulary with Answer Key - - t.. ----=-- -- -------.....- ·.. - """'1·. 0. - ·--- c-.;..::.::.. "'"=':........... · ·.... · - ··tr-:;_................................... - - _.., ,..1 --. ;.:- - -... ·, - -'...-..c - - - Malcolm Mann Steve Taylore-Knowles Destination c1&c2 Grammar & Vocabulary Macmillan Education Between Towns Road, Oxford OX4 3PP A division of Macmillan Publishers Limited Companies and representatives throughout the world ISBN 978-0-230-03540-9 Text© Macmillan Publishers Limited 2008 Design and illustration© Macmillan Publishers Limited 2008 First published 2007 All rights reserved; no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Note to Teachers Photocopies may be made, for classroom use, of pages 265-276 without the prior written permission of Macmillan Publishers Limited. However, please note that the copyright law, which does not normally permit multiple copying of published material, applies to the rest of this book. Original design by Georgia Liberopoulou Page make-up by Anne Sherlock Cover design by Macmillan Publishers Limited Cover photograph by Brand X Pictures Authors' acknowledgements The authors would like to thank Ruth Jimack, Dorothy Richardson and Jane Counter for their valuable contributions to the writing and editing of this book. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Martins the Printers 2012 2011 2010 2009 10 9 8 7 6 5 Overview Destination Cl & C2: Grammar and Vocabulary has been designed for advanced students at Cl and C2 levels on the Council of Europe's Common European Framework scale. This book provides presentation and practice of all the key grammar, vocabulary and lexico-grammatical areas required for all main Cl and C2 exams, eg Cambridge CAE and Cambridge CPE. There are 26 units in the book: 13 grammar units and 13 vocabulary units. Grammar Each grammar unit begins with a clear two-page presentation of grammar rules and examples in table form. Important points are highlighted in Watch out! boxes. The grammar practice exercises follow the order of the grammar presentation, and are graded in difficulty through the unit. A wide variety of exercise types are used, including those found in major Cl and C2 level exams. In each grammar unit, the topic vocabulary focus of the following unit is used as a context for presentation and text-based exercises. Vocabulary The vocabulary units are topic-based, covering topics appropriate to the level. Each vocabulary unit begins with two pages of clear presentation tables comprising six sections: two topic vocabulary sections; phrasal verbs; phrases, patterns and collocations; idioms; word formation. The vocabulary exercises are organised according to these sections, and provide systematic practice of the vocabulary presented. Exercise types found in major Cl and C2 level exams are included. The grammar focus of the preceding unit is consolidated within these exercises. Revision and consolidation Strong emphasis is placed on revision and consolidation. The book includes: thirteen reviews (after every two units) two progress tests (after units 12 and 26) six photocopiable revision tests (after every four units) Additional material Additional reference material is provided at the back of the book. This includes: a topic vocabulary database with definitions and example sentences a phrasal verbs database with definitions and example sentences a phrases, patterns and collocations database an idioms database with definitions and example sentences a word formation database 3 Units Pages Unit 1 Grammar Present time 6 · - - -··------- - Unit 2 Vocabulary Thinking and learning 12 ·· - - · - ··--- -·-···-··· ··-··-··- ···-··-···-··--·-···-·--··.. -·--·- -·----·--···-·-·· -- -------- -- -----·----- - Review 1 Units 1 and 2 20 Unit 3 Grammar Past time 22 ----- -- -------... ------------ ---- Vocabulary Change - and technology 28 -------- - --·· -·· ·-·-.. ----·-·· --- --- Unit 4 -·---- - - ···· - --·-- - --- - Review 2 Units 3 and 4 36 Unit 5 Grammar Future time 38 ---- - ----·- ·... - -··· ------- ---·- ···-·-·· --- Unit 6 Vocabulary Time and work 44 ------ -· · ·-·-·-· ·----·--··-·---· ·..···.... --··.......... -- ___ - - Review 3 Units 5 and -6 -- - - 52 -···- ---···-··· · ·-··· ····-·--·· ·-··- -- ----- ----------- -- Unit 7 Grammar Passives and causatives 54 -·--·- Unit 8 Vocabulary Movement and transport 60 ----------- Review 4 Units 7 and 8 68 Unit 9 Grammar Modals and semi-modals 70 --········ Unit 10 Vocabulary Communication and the media 76 --------------- --- ···-- ·-..·-·-·--- ····-··--- ··-··----· -· -· ·--· -.. Review 5 Units 9 and 10 84 Unit 11 Grammar - Conditionals 86 - ·- -···----- -- Vocabulary Unit 12 Chance and nature 92 -------- ------ -----------------··-···-···-·· ·--- Review 6 Units 11 and 12 100 Unit 13 Grammar Unreal time 106 Unit 14 Vocabulary Quantity and money 112 ------- ··--- Review 7 Units 13 and 14 120 Unit 15 Grammar Adjectives and adverbs 122 ---------- 4  Contents Units Pages Unit 16 Vocabulary Materials and the built environment 128 ·-··-·· Review 8 Units 15 and 16 136 Unit 17 Grammar Clauses 138 Unit 18 Vocabulary Reactions and health 144 Review 9 Units 17 and 18 152 Unit 19 Grammar Complex sentences 154 Unit 20 Vocabulary Power and social issues 160 Review 10 Units 19 and 20 168 Unit 21 Grammar Noun phrases 170 ·-----·· ----· ··--·----- --- Unit 22 Vocabulary Quality and the arts 176 Review 11 Units 21 and 22 184 Unit 23 Grammar Verbal complements 186 Unit 24 Vocabulary Relationships and people 192 ··--··-·· Review 12 Units 23 and 24 200 Unit 25 Grammar Reporting 202 --- -·- Unit 26 Vocabulary Preference and leisure activities 208 Review 13 Units 25 and 26 216 Reference section Topic vocabulary database 224 Phrasal verbs database 245 Phrases, patterns and collocations database 251 Idioms database 257 Word formation database 261 5  1 i JShl Present simple General truths The left-hand side of the brain controls the right-hand side of the body. Current habits I don't a/ways go to lectures that are early in the morning' Permanent situations and states Angie teaches French at a local adult education centre. Telling jokes and other informal stories So, a man goes to see his psychiatrist... Live sports commentary Adams passes to Kareshi. It's a goal! Newspaper headlines HAWKING WINS NOBEL PRIZE Reviews and summaries The film ends with us not knowing whether they have been successful or not. Instructions and directions You turn left at the end of the road and the school is up ahead. Proverbs and sayings Too many cook s spoil the broth. The future (for fixed events) Term ends on 21 st December. (see Unit 5 for more information) The future (in time clau ses) I'll be so relieved when I finish this crossword. (see Unit 5 for more information) Emphatic pre t simple To emphasise contrast Adam doesn't know much about psychiatry but he does know quite a lot about psychology. To emphasise strong feeling I do like playing word games' Words and phrases often used with the present simple a/ways/ usually/ generally/ often/ sometimes/ rarely/ seldom I never I whenever I nowadays I these days I from time to time/ every now and then/ mosVmuch of the time/ It's/That's the last time Actions happening now The boys are doing their homework right now. Actions happening around now What book are you doing in English at the moment? Temporary situations and series of actions We aren't having any exams while the lecturers are still on strike. Changing and developing situations More and more people are recognising the advantages of being able to speak a foreign language. Annoying or amusing habits Dan's a/ways coming up with the craziest ideas! (usually with always) Background information in jokes and other A man goes to s ee his psychiatrist. He's carrying a bag full of honey... informal storie s The future (for arrangements) When are you taking your driving test? (see Unit 5 for more information) The future (in time clau ses) I'll probably be a bit scared when I'm waiting outside for the exam to start. (see Unit 5 for more information) Words and phrases often used with the present continuous now I right now I for now I currently I at the moment I for the time being I at present I today I this week/etc I It's/That's the last time 6  Present time Unit 1 Present perfect simple Situations and states that started in I've been a member of MENSA for over five years. the past and are still true A series of actions continuing up to now She's done a BA, an MA and a PhD so far. Completed actions at a time in the past Have you ever read any books by Edward De Bono? which is not important or relevant Completed actions where the important She's been awarded a scholarship to study at Harvard. thing is the present result Artinn, rnmnlPtPrl rPrPntlv. ·--·-··- --·· ·,------. ---· ·-·J I've just received my exam results. The future (in time clauses) Telf me when you've finished the report. (see Unit 5 for more information) Words and phrases often used with the present perfect simple [ since I for I It's the firsVsecond/etc time I before I already I yet I ever I just I still I recently I up to now (up) until now I so far vs Grammar In American English, the past simple is often used instead of the present perfect simple. US: Did you find the answer yet? UK: Have you found the answer yet? US: I already found the answer. UK: I've already found the answer. In informal American English, gotten is sometimes used as a past participle instead of got when it means 'obtain', 'become' or 'move'. US: I haven't gotten the books yet. ( = I haven't bought the books yet.) UK: I haven't got the books yet. ;:Pr sent p rf.ect continuous Actions and situations continuing up to We've all been wondering what to get Tony for his birthday and we just the present (or just before the present) can't decide. The future (in time clauses) I won't take my driving test until I've been having lessons for at least two months. (see Unit 5 for more information) We usually use the present perfect simple to specify a particular number of times/things. ✓ I've written two essays this week. We usually use the present perfect continuous to emphasise the duration of an action/situation. ✓ I've worked here for five years. (no emphasis) ✓ I've been working here for five years. (emphasises the duration) [words and phrases often used with the present perfect continuous ce I for Ijust I all day/week/etc J.. ' ' - --4-r.- ,W-"· ·- · · ',} -:;..-,-..:4 -.;.,=,r ;_"';T:! Stative.and ,no stati'!ei_us_e..-$!!: !! , r ) : , When certain verbs are used to describe states, they are generally used in simple tenses rather than continuous tenses. Communication agree, deny, disagree Thinking believe, consider, doubt, expect, imagine, know, mean, realise, suppose, suspect, think, understand Existence be, exist Emotions adore, appeal, appreciate, desire, despise, detest, dislike, envy, fear, feel, forgive, hate, like, love, mind. need. pity. prefer. satisfy. trust. want. wish Perr.eption appear, hear, look, notir.P., recognise, resemb/P., sP.e, seem, smell, sound, tastP. Possession and belong, concern, consist, contain, cost, depend, equal, fit, have, include, involve, lack, measure, owe, relationships between own, possess, suit, weigh thi n a, -·····o- Other deserve, matter Many of the verbs above can also be used in continuous tenses when they describe actions rather than states. These verbs include: appeal, be, consider, depend, feel, have, include, look, mean, mind, see, smell, taste, think, weigh ✓ I think it's important to know how to use a computer. (state: think = believe) ✓ I'm thinking about going on a computer course. (action: think= consider) 1 ------------------------­ Unit 1 Grammar A Write the verb in brackets in the correct form, present simple or present continuous, in each gap. 1 My brother.................................... (do) a degree at university so I.................................... (see) him very often, unfortunately. 2 Darren.................................... usually.................................... (get) home until about eight o'clock. 3 I'm sorry to hear that your parents.................................... (get) divorced. 4 You.................................... (go) to the end of the street and.................................... (turn) right. 5 Why.................................... ice.................................... (float)? 6 It's lovely now the evenings.................................... (get) longer, isn't it? 7 My dad.................................... (eat) meat at all - he's a vegetarian. 8 Actually, we.................................... (listen) to The Libertines at all - this is Pete Docherty's second band, Babyshamb/es. 9 A man.................................... (walk) into a bar. Ouch! Not a good idea to walk into an iron bar! 10................................... you.................................... (phone) me from your mobile? The line's not very good. 11.................................... you often.................................... (order) things online? 12 There's an Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman. They................................... (walk) across the desert when one of them.................................... (spot) a camel in the distance... 13 Beckham.................................... (have) control of the ball... It's Beckham... And he................................... (score)! 14 WOMAN.................................... (give) €500 MILLION LOTTERY WIN TO CHARITY 15 My dad.................................... (always/ tell) jokes! They're usually rubbish, though. 16 'Phil.................................... (wear) ties, does he?' 'Actually, he.................................... (wear) a tie to work most days.' B Write one word in each gap. 1 Why do you........................ leave the light on when you go out of the room? You wait till you start paying the electricity bill! 2 Fifteen teachers are teaching here full-time at.......................... 3 My sister's revising for her GCSEs at the......................... 4 I'm quite happy living at home for the time......................... , but I guess I'll have to get my own place eventually. 5 It's true that Ralph calls us quite......................... , but most students only call their parents when they need something, don't they? 6 We go to the cinema......................... now and then, but only if there's something good on. 7 I'm alone in my study bedroom reading......................... of the time. 8 Tim......................... goes out to play until he's done all his homework. I just don't allow it! 9 I see Lucinda from......................... to time, but not on a regular basis. 10 I'm sitting in the garden......................... now talking to you on my mobile. 11 That's the last......................... we're inviting Dave to one of our parties! 12 Do young people these......................... have more free time than they did in the past? 13 My mum fills up with petrol......................... she goes to the supermarket. 14 I'm staying in......................... now, but I might go out a bit later on. 15......................... is the last time I ever order from that pizzeria. It was disgusting! 8 ----------------------- ­ Present time Unit 1 C Write a verb from the box in the correct form, present simple or present continuous, in each gap. Use the words in brackets with the verb. Use contractions where possible. You can use the verbs more than once. contact do drive focus go happen have like look need say sound take think try work ------- ·--. -------. ----·- c::, L'., 0.- [ntt, c Messaqe iI ·1 De -t.'"' P< ply Re"',. ,.'\I -------- ----- f,:,r·.v ltf-fot:1r-year-s-: ✓ At the end of this year, I will have been in training as a pilot for four years. on display x Vintage car-5-have been being-displayed in the town-€ent,=e-a// this week. ✓ Vintage cars have been on display in the town centre all this week. under consideration x -IiJy-tfle--time they came toa decision, the problem hadbeefl--being-Gonsidered f-Or some timec ✓ By the time they came to a decision, the problem had been under consideration for some time. under construction x The new railw iffg---BUilt---fef---two-yeaF-S-nQW-; ✓ The new railway station has been under construction for two years now. Some verbs are not usually used in the passive. They include intransitive verbs such as appear, arrive, die, etc. Many verbs used statively are also not usually used in the passive. They include consist, deserve, fit, have, lack, look, mind, realise, resemble, seem, suit, etc. The verb /et is not used in the passive when it means 'allow', although phrasal verbs with /et can be used in the passive. ✓ Alice was clearly guilty, but she was let off with a warning. Some verbs can be followed by the bare infinitive (without to) in active sentences. They are followed by the full infinitive in passive sentences. These verbs include hear, help, make and see. ✓ We heard Jim say he was going to Albania. (active) ✓ Jim was heard to say he was going to Albania. (passive) Actions we arrange for other people to do for us Did you finally get your bike fixed? Things we experience (usually negative and not intended) I heard that Susie had her motorbike stolen. In general, get is more informal than have in causative structures. We can use other verbs instead of get and have with a causative meaning. They include need, want and would like. ✓ I'd like those cars washed by this evening, please. The structure get sth done can also mean 'finish doing something'. ✓ We'll set off as soon as I've got the car fixed. Did you get Alex to drive you all the way to London 7 Actions we make somebody/something start doing Don't worry. We'll soon have your car running like new. Most of the time, we do not show who does/did an action (the 'agent') in a passive or causative sentence. When we do want to refer to the agent, we use by. ✓ We should get the car looked at by a professional. When we want to refer to materials or instruments used in a passive or causative sentence, we use with. ✓ The engine is started with a special electronic card instead of a key. We use other prepositions after some past participles that are used like adjectives. ✓ I am frightened of driving on motorways. ✓ My car is covered in dirt. 55 ---------------------­ Unit 7 Grammar A If the verb in bold is correct, put a tick. If it is incorrect, rewrite it correctly. 1 Could you tell me where your passport was been issued? 2 When the winning actor was finally announced, a big cheer went up. 3 Has your business trip to Calcutta next week confirmed by the Indian office? 4 Everyone who was been invited to the wedding came. 5 The wire coat hanger invented in 1903 by a Mr Parkhouse. 6 The issue has discussed in Parliament yesterday, but no decisions were taken. 7 By the time we get there, the problem should have been sorted out. 8 Britain was be invaded by the Romans under Emperor Claudius in 43 AD. 9 The party had been planned months in advance, but we still had problems. 10 After be treated, I was allowed to leave the hospital. 11 We boarded the ship and were showing to our cabin by a steward. 12 The new supermarket is to be opened by an actor from a soap opera. B Write a verb from the box in the correct passive form in each gap. allow ask find give know light make meet show write 1 The stolen items................................... in the attic of an empty house last week. 2 When the open-air cinema opens, the first film.................................... will be Vertigo. 3 Questions.................................... in Parliament about the Minister's business interests. 4 We're looking forward to.................................... a guided tour of the whole factory. 5 Just imagine that when these words.................................... , Europeans had not yet discovered America. 6 Once the barbecue.................................... , we'll be able to start cooking. 7 Before.................................... to see the invention, I had to agree not to tell anyone. 8 I would really like.................................... at the airport, if that's possible. 9 It.................................... very clear to us that we weren't welcome. 10 Gareth says he's always wanted.................................... as someone with a good sense of humour. C Circle the correct word or phrase. 1 Global warming is thought to be caused / is caused by pollution. 2 There are to be estimated/ are estimated to be about 5,400 different species of mammals. 3 It is to be reported / has been reported that gunshots have been heard in the city 'centre. 4 The escaped prisoner is believed to use / to have used a rope to climb the wall. 5 It is to be calculated / is calculated that about 60% of a man's body mass is water. 6 Over 200 people are being understood / are understood to have been injured in the explosion. 7 It is considered impolite in some cultures to be eaten/ to eat with your left hand. 8 There mean / were meant to have been 60 crates of olives in the order, not 600! 9 It/ There has been suggested that people who don't recycle should pay more tax. 10 Your order is guaranteed will be delivered/ to be delivered within three working days. 56  Passives and causatives Unit 7 D Each sentence contains one verb in the wrong form. Underline the incorrect word or phrase and rewrite it correctly. Heathrow 1 Heathrow Airport, near London, has called the world's busiest international airport and the 68 million passengers who are processed each year would probably agree..................................... 2 The land on which the airport stands sold to Fairey Aviation by the local vicar and was used for test flights during the 1930s, under the name Great Western Aerodrome.................................... 3 In 1944, the airport was handed over to the government and was developed for civilian use, was named after a small village that was removed to create space, Heath Row..................................... 4 The first concrete slab of the modern runways was laid by Queen Elizabeth II in 1953, and the first terminal building, which has later renamed Terminal 2, was opened two years later..................................... 5 The London Underground was extended to reach Heathrow in 1977, meaning that passengers could be transport from central London via the Piccadilly Line in just under an hour..................................... 6 Four passenger terminals and a cargo terminal have been constructed and permission was been granted for a fifth passenger terminal in 2001..................................... 7 It has been suggested that a new airport, which would lead to Heathrow being retired over a period of 20 years, has been built on a floating island in the Thames, although no firm plans have been drawn up. E Complete the sentences describing each situation using the phrase given. 1 I started training to be an accountant six months ago. I've got six more months to go, and then I have to take exams.(in training) By the time I take my exams,.................................................................................................................................................. 2 The council have been thinking for some time of redeveloping the city centre. (under consideration) The redevelopment of the city centre........................................................................................................................................ 3 They've been having discussions on the issue for over two weeks. (in progress) Discussions on the issue.............................................................................................................................................................. 4 This weekend, the local Art Society will be displaying their latest works at the library. (on display) The local Art Society's latest works.......................................................................................................................................... 5 George seems to have been putting his website together for a long time.(under construction) George's website........................................................................................................................................................................... F If the word or phrase in bold is correct, put a tick. If it is incorrect, rewrite it correctly. Hannah:... and that was that, really.Anyway, what about your new car? Tell me about that. Alison: Oh, what a nightmare! We had to have it repaired twice! (1).................................... Hannah: Oh, no! What happened? Alison: Well, we got delivered it to our house on Monday morning.(2)................................... Hannah: Right. Alison: We decided to have it check straight away, because it had come all the way from America. (3).................................... Hannah: Oh, I didn't know you'd had them do that.(4).................................... Alison: Yeah.Anyway, we had my dad to have a look at it.And he found that the engine wasn't running properly. (5).................................... Hannah: Did you have the company to come to fix it? (6)................................... Alison: Well, not at first.We got my brother to working on it. (7).................................. Hannah: Oh, he's very good.I bet he soon had running it smoothly. (8).................................... Alison: Yes, but we still had to get the company come out in the end, because the fuel pump stopped working. (9).................................... Hannah: Terrible! You should get them to give you some compensation. (10).................................... Alison: Maybe. Oh, is that the time? Listen, give me a call... 57 - ----------------------­ Unit 7 Grammar G Complete each sentence using the noun in bold and an appropriate causative form of the verb in bold. 1 If you don't understand,........................................................................... it to you again after the lesson. (your teacher/ explain) 2 I was a bit depressed, but watching my kitten play with a ball of wool soon.................................................................. much better. (me/ feel) 3 Don't bother redecorating yourself -........................................................................... it. (a professional/ do) 4........................................................................... was so annoying because it meant I had to take the tube to work. (our car/ steal) 5 You won't learn as much if you........................................................................... you with your homework all the time. (your parents/ help) 6 The concert started quietly, but the band soon........................................................................... to their hit songs. (us all/ dance) 7 Tell Gordon yourself! Don't try........................................................................... your dirty work for you! (me/ do) 8 Have you thought about........................................................................... as short as mine? (your hair/ cut) 9 I......................................................................... me how to juggle with five balls, but I still couldn't do it. (Karen/ show) 10 Have you heard about the problems caused by students......................................................................... by companies on the Internet? (their essays/ write) H Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between three and eight words, including the word given. 1 They made me wait for over 20 minutes on the phone! kept I........................................................................... for over 20 minutes on the phone! 2 Although people consider Ashley to be a star, she is always friendly towards everyone. considered Despite........................................................................... , Ashley's always friendly towards everyone. 3 We have had reports that the Prime Minister is making a surprise visit to Syria. be The Prime Minister........................................................................... a surprise visit to Syria. 4 The manager provided the staff with extra training. by The........................................................................... the manager. 5 I think someone needs to explain this computer program to me. explaining I think I need........................................................................... me. 6 They have been building the new stadium for much longer than they originally estimated. under The new stadium........................................................................... for much longer than they originally estimated. 7 Do you know why they made Craig stay behind after the lesson? to Do you know why........................................................................... behind after the lesson? 8 Call Lionel and ask him to send the reports up to my office. have Call Lionel and........................................................................... the reports up to my office. 58  Passives and causatives Unit 7 Choose the correct answer. 1 When Nadine arrived, she soon......................... at 6 I spoke to Victor last night and he says he all her jokes.......................... while he was on holiday. A had everyone laughed A had stolen his phone B had laughing everyone B got stolen his phone C had everyone laughing C was got his phone stolen D had laughed everyone D had his phone stolen 2 The government must......................... strong 7 Why didn't you......................... you when you measures against crime. moved house? A be seen be taking A have Aaron help B see to be taking B have got Aaron help C seen to take C have Aaron helped D be seen to be taking D get Aaron help 3 Mrs Davies asked me to tell you that she would 8 Profits......................... slightly next year, although like......................... by Friday at the latest. we don't predict any job losses. A the orders sent A expect to fall B sending the orders B are expecting to fall C that you sent C are expected falling D sent the orders D are expected to fall 4 Joining a gym......................... , but I didn't really 9 It's hard to believe that this film......................... fancy the idea. completely by computer. A was suggested me A was been generating B to me was suggested B has generated C was suggested to me C has been generated D was suggesting me D was to generate 5 There......................... between 4,000 and 6,000 10 As soon as Dad......................... , we can leave. languages in the world, depending on how you A has the car starting count them. B has got the car started A say to be C got started the car B are said that D was got starting the car C are said to be D said being J Write one word in each gap. The scramjet Imagine (I)......................... transported around the globe in a matter of hours, rather than the 24 hours which (2)......................... currently required to get from London to Sydney. Such is the promise of the scramjet, a highly experimental type of engine which has been (3)......................... development over the past couple of decades. In a conventional jet engine, air (4)......................... sucked into the engine at speeds below the speed of sound, where it is mixed (5)......................... fuel, ignited, and the exhaust gases provide thrust. In a scramjet, which has to (6)......................... taken to supersonic speeds by conventional means before it will operate, the air enters at supersonic speeds. It has (7)......................... estimated that a scramjet might be capable of travelling at 12-24 times the speed of sound. However, the technology (8)......................... been found to be extremely difficult to control. Although scientists (9)......................... had scramjets perform short flights, commercial aircraft are still a long way in the future, and indeed may never ( I 0)......................... successfully developed. 59  8 UNIT Movement and transport Topic vocabulary: Movement see page 229 for definitions accelerate (v) drift (v, n) jog (v, n) sink (v) approach (v, n) emigrate (v) leap (v, n) skid (v, n) ascend (v) float (v) march (v, n) skip (v) bounce (v, n) flow (v, n) migrate (v) slide (v, n) clamber (v) fumble (v) point (v) slip (v) clench (v) gesture (v, n) punch (v) step (v, n) clutch (v) glide (v) refugee (n) stride (v, n) crawl (v) grab (v) roam (v) trip (v) creep (v) grasp (v) roll (v) velocity (n) dash (v) hop (v, n) rotate (v) wander (v) descend (v) immigrant (n) route (n) wave (v, n) Topic vocabulary: Transport see page 230 for definitions airline (n) destination (n) load (v, n) quay (n) cargo (n) hiker (n) passerby (n) return fare (n phr) carriage (n) hitchhiker (n) pedestrian (n) round trip (n phr) charter (v) jet lag (n) pier (n) steer (v) commute (v) legroom (n) pilot (v, n) steward (n) Phrasal verbs cordon off stop people from entering an area by putting move out permanently leave the house or flat where something such as a rope around it you live or the place where you have your creep up on move towards someone quietly and slowly, business especially because you want to surprise move over change your position in order to make space them for someone or something fall behind move more slowly than other people so that pull over stop by the side of the road in a car or you are behind them; make less progress or other vehicle be less successful than other people who slip away leave secretly are doing a similar job or activity step aside move so that sb can pass you; leave a job so go astray become lost or go to the wrong place that sb else can take over head off prevent someone from going somewhere by stop off visit somewhere before continuing to getting in front of them; prevent something another place from taking place tip up (of an object) have one end move upwards, hold back stop someone or something from moving especially because something heavy has been forwards put at the other end; turn a container upside move in (with) start living in a different house or flat (with) down so that the things inside it come out move on leave one place and travel to another; stop walk out leave a meeting, performance, etc before the discussing or doing something and begin end, usually because you are angry or bored; discussing or doing something different suddenly leave a relationship, your family, your job, etc Phrases, patterns and collocations back back into sth, back onto sth, back sb (to do) drop drop sth off sth, drop sth into/onto sth, drop sb at, drop come come to a conclusion/decision/etc, come to power, a hint, drop sb (from a team) come into view, come as a shock/etc, come to do sth, fall fall ill, fall into (a category), fall in love, fall into place, fall come true short, fall to pieces drive drive (your point) home, drive sb crazy/mad, drive sb to fly fly a flag/kite, fly by, fly open, fly at do sth, drive at sth 60  - Movement and transport Unit 8 Phrases, patterns and collocations follow follow sb's argumenVetc, follow suit, follow sb's lead, raise raise your hand, raise sth with sb, raise a child/family, follow sb's advice, as follows raise sb's hopes/expectations, raise a smile, raise your get get going, get somewhere, get ill/angry/upseVetc, get voice, raise an army sth weVdirty/etc, get to do sth, get sb sth, get sth done, run run a business/campaign/etc, run riot, run on get sth doing petrol/electricity/etc, run sb a bath, run through sth, run go go and do sth, go deaf/grey/crazy/bad/etc, go for the risk of doing, run into problems days/weeks/etc (without sth), go hungry, go without, go rush rush to conclusions, do sth in a rush, in a rush (to do to do sth sth), mad rush, rush hour, the Christmas/etc rush head head towards/for (a place), head a ball, head a steady steady yourself, steady your nerves, hold sth steady, committee/etc, head a list steady relationship, steady growth, steady look, steady pace jump jump at the chance (to do), jump the queue, jump to conclusions, jump the gun track keep track of, lose track of time/etc, on the wrong track, on track (to do) move move it, get a move on, follow sb's every move, make turn turn to do sth, turn a gun/etc on sb, turn to sb, turn a move, on the move cold/nasty/etc, turn 40/etc point point aVto/towards sth, get to the point, make a point way get in sb's way, know the way, lose your way, get sth of doing sth, make your point, miss the point, at some out of the way, make way for, in the way, on the way, in point, beside the point, up to a point, a sore point this way, a way of doing, by the way Idioms a stone's throw (away/from) very close (to) as the crow flies in a straight line (used for measuring distance) follow your nose go straight forward, without turning; do what you feel is right in a particular situation, although you are not certain in the middle of nowhere a long way from any town or city lose your bearings become confused about where you are and where other things are make a beeline for go towards someone or something in the quickest and most direct way off the beaten track away from populated areas or areas popular with tourists stop dead in your tracks suddenly stop, for example because you are surprised take a short cut to follow a path that is quicker and shorter than the usual way take the scenic route follow a longer path than the usual one because it is more attractive Word formation access accessibility, (in)accessible progress progression, progressive(ly) come overcome, comeback, newcomer, outcome, rapid rapidity, rapidly income, coming, oncoming, incoming speed sped, speeding, speedy, speedily go undergo, underwent, undergone, for(e)go, stable (de)stabilise, (in)stability, destabilisation, for(e)went, for(e)gone, ongoing, outgoing stabiliser, (de)stabilising, unstable land landing, landed, landless stand withstand, withstood, standing, upstanding, mobile (im)mobilise, (im)mobility, mobilisation, immobile outstanding, notwithstanding motion motionless steady unsteady, (un)steadily move mover, movement, (im)movable, moving transit transition, transitory, transitional, transitionally pass passage, (im)passable, passing up upper, uppermost, upright, upward(s), upwardly 61 Unit 8 Vocabulary Topic vocabulary: Movement A Complete using the correct form of the words in the boxes. clench clutch fumble gesture grab grasp point punch wave 1 I.................................... my school bag from the table and rushed out of the house. 2 Grace.................................... in her bag for her car keys and finally found them. 3 A man ran from the burning house,.................................... a baby in his arms. 4 The old man.................................... his finger straight at me and I felt a chill go down my spine. 5 As the train left the station, Charlie.................................... goodbye. 6 Jamie came home from school with a black eye because someone had.................................... him. 7 I asked Karen where the phone was and without taking her eyes off the TV she.................................... lazily in the direction of the kitchen. 8 Lina.................................... her fists tightly in anger but managed to control herself. 9 He.................................... my hand firmly and I could see that he was trying to thank me. crawl creep dash hop jog leap march skip step stride 10 The burglar.................................... very quietly along the corridor, trying not to wake anybody. 11 How long do you think you could.................................... on one leg? 12 I.................................... in the park most mornings because I like to keep myself in shape. 13 Just.................................... this way, sir, and the customer services manager will be with you in a moment. 14 When we heard the noise, we quickly.................................... round the corner to see what had happened. 15 Before he learnt to walk, my younger brother used to.................................... everywhere on all fours. 16 The army.................................... for two days before they came to the outskirts of the city. 17 The speaker.................................... onto the stage and smiled confidently at the audience. 18 When he saw me coming, our dog.................................... over the gate and came to greet me. 19 Polly was so happy she.................................... along the pavement to school, jumping from one foot to the other. drift roam wander 20 When the men were finally found, they had been.................................... at sea in a tiny boat for days. 21 Wolves used to.................................... this whole area, looking for food. 22 I was bored so I.................................... into the centre of town and did a bit of window shopping. skid slide slip trip 23 I didn't see the oil on the floor and I.................................... on it. 24 This wardrobe is really heavy, but maybe we can.................................... it along the ground. 25 I didn't see the step and I.................................... over it. 26 The road was wet, so when I pressed the brakes the car.................................... 62  Movement and transport Unit 8 B Complete using the words in bold in the correct form. 1 I.................................... over a rock and looked down into the valley below us. We had.................................... to 6,000 metres above sea level and the air was getting thin. Nick was injured, and I knew we would have to.................................... soon to get medical treatment. (ascend, clamber, descend) 2 The pilot held the controls. The engines were dead and the plane was.................................... towards the airfield. She knew that if she didn't have the.................................... to reach the runway, there was no way she could................................. She just hoped that the air would continue to................. over the wings and stop her from.................................... too low. She................................. the runway with her heart in her throat. (accelerate, approach, flow, glide, sink, velocity) 3 The arctic tern is an incredible bird. It.................................... thousands of miles each year, stopping occasionally to.................................... on the ocean to rest. How it remembers the............................... is still not fully understood. (float, migrate, route) 4 In basketball, you must.................................... the ball when you are moving with it. When you take a shot, you should let the ball.................................... off your fingers so that it................................. in the air. That makes it more accurate. (bounce, roll, rotate) 5 In the 1950s, many people................................... from the West Indies to England. Life was often hard for these.................................... , but they eventually became part of British life. Today, Britain also welcomes.................................... from parts of the world that are affected by war. (emigrate, immigrant, refugee) Topic vocabulary: Transport C Complete using the correct form of the words in the box. airline carriage charter commute destination jet lag legroom steward LET THE PLANE TAKE THE STRAIN The railways changed the way we live and work. People started to (1).................................. to work, travelling home in a crowded train (2).................................... each day. Now a new (3).................................. , Officeways, plans to extend the idea and hopes to get more of us taking the plane to work! In the past, getting to work by air was only for the very wealthy, who could afford to (4).................................. a plane or helicopter even if they didn't have their own private jet. Now, Officeways, which travels to (5).................................... throughout Europe, is offering special deals on short trips to business travellers. You might have less (6).................................... than on the train, but Officeways claims their (7).................................. are specially trained to help you relax on the way to work. And with such short journey times, there's no risk of (8).................................. !So what are you waiting for? Turn to page 37 for our Officeways competition! 63 - Unit 8 Vocabulary D Circle the correct word or phrase. 1 Running along the seafront, there was a short concrete pier/ quay, where a dozen fishing boats bobbed in the afternoon sun. 2 Quite a few resorts in Britain have long piers/ quays, which stick out into the sea, and which often have shows or other forms of entertainment on them. 3 This area is for passersby/ pedestrians only and is closed to all traffic. 4 After the accident, passersby/ pedestrians described the driver as a middle-aged man with a beard. 5 Keep both hands on the wheel and you'll find it easier to pilot/ steer the car. 6 I'm hoping to train so that I can pilot/ steer commercial aircraft. 7 As I came out of the petrol station, I saw a hiker/ hitchhiker with his thumb out, trying to get a lift. 8 Local hikers/ hitchhikers insist that they have the right to walk across the field, although the farmer who owns the land disagrees. 9 It's three and a half hours each way, so the return fare/ round trip takes seven hours. 10 A single is €40, but the return fare/ round trip is actually only €55. 11 A lorry lost its cargo/ load on the motorway and there's white paint everywhere. 12 The area where the cargo / load is stored on a plane can actually get extremely cold during a flight. Phrasal verbs E Write one word in each gap. 1 The police officer told the homeless man to move......................... and he walked slowly and painfully down the road. 2 Len has already left on foot, but if we take the car then maybe we can still head him......................... before he gets home. 3 Would you mind moving......................... so that I can sit here? 4 A young man was riding his motorbike on the pavement and everyone was forced to step......................... to let him go past. 5 The area has been cordoned......................... following a bomb threat. 6 As I leant on the table, it tipped......................... and I fell over. 7 My mum's a bit upset because my sister's moving......................... to go to university next week. 8 Daryl managed to keep up with the leader for most of the race, but eventually he started to fall.......................... F Complete using a phrasal verb with a word from box A in the right form and a word from box B. A creep go hold move pull slip stop walk B astray away back in off out over up 1 Dimitri thought he heard a funny noise coming from the car engine, so he.................................... to investigate. 2 The police.................................... the crowd.................................... so that the ambulances could get to the scene more quickly. 3 The show was so boring that we.................................... after half an hour. 4 Remind me to.................................... on the way to your grandma's to get her a birthday card. 5 I wish you wouldn't.................................... on me like that! You frightened me to death! 6 Martha didn't want to interrupt the party, so she just.................................... quietly without anyone noticing. 7 Are you really thinking of.................................... with Josie? What about your own flat? 8 It seems that the explorers.................................... after losing their map and wandered in the jungle for days. 64  Movement and transport Unit 8 G The phrasal verb cordon off means something like 'prevent people entering'. Tick the words which could be used to complete this sentence to form phrasal verbs with a similar meaning. The area has been......................... off by police. 1 block 3 line 5 put 7 seal 2 close 4 fence 6 rope 8 take Phrases, patterns and collocations H Complete using the phrases in the box in the correct form. Change sb, sth or do into something appropriate. back onto do sth in a rush drop sb at fall in love fly at get a move on get sth out of the way get sth wet go and do jump at the chance keep track of raise sb's hopes 1 Look at the time! We'd better.............................................................. or we're going to be late. 2 My parents say they.............................................................. when they met on holiday in Turkey. 3 Your essay isn't good enough. It's obvious to me that you.............................................................. , rather than taking your time. 4 I've always wanted to fly and I would.............................................................. to visit the pilot in the cockpit. 5 One of the things I love about this house is that it.............................................................. the river. 6 I don't want to.............................................................. , but there's a chance we might be flying to America! 7 I can't believe you............................................................. Ben what I said about him. 8 There's no need to.............................................................. me - I wasn't the one who crashed the car! 9 I've got a lot of homework, so let me.............................................................. first and then I'll call you. 10 You travel so much! I can't.............................................................. all the countries you've been to. 11 Since you're going that way, do you think you could.............................................................. my house? 12 Those sunglasses were expensive - take them off in the pool or you'll............................................................. Write one word in each gap. 1 In the distance, a steam train.................................... slowly into view. 2 Don't.................................... your voice at me! I haven't done anything wrong! 3 We need to book our ferry tic ets.................................... some point, so remind me later. 4 Suddenly, the door flew.................................... and there stood Mrs Singh. 5 It's the.................................... hour, so there'll be a lot of traffic on the roads. 6 My dad's beginning to.................................... grey, and he's only 35. 7 Even when his flight was cancelled, Jake still managed to.................................... a smile. 8 Do you know the.................................... to Ed's house from here? 9 Sam's not coming, but Isabelle's.................................... the way, so she should be here soon. 10 I can't believe that woman just tried to.................................... the queue and get to the front first. 65 - Unit 8 Vocabulary J For each question, write one word which can be used in all three sentences. 1 I don't understand what.................................... Michael to leave his family like that. The kids almost................................... me crazy when we were on holiday. I thought the journalist.................................. his point home well, and the politician didn't know what to say. 2 We decided to.................................... towards the small town we could see in the distance. Joshua Reed has been appointed to.................................... the committee responsible for promoting local tourism. Which places would you say.................................... the list of most popular tourist destinations in Britain? 3 I'm starting to.................................... to the conclusion that you don't want to go on holiday with me. How did you.................................... to lose your passport? I know it's going to.................................... as a bit of a shock to you, but I've decided to walk round the world. 4 We need to keep up a.................................... pace if we're going to get there before it gets dark. Corey and Angela seem to have a very.................................... relationship, and I can't imagine them splitting up, can you? Kelly gave me a.................................... look as if to say, 'I know where you've been.' 5 We always make a.................................... of inviting the old woman next door to join us for Christmas dinner. Don't mention the fact that Chris failed his driving test - it's a bit of a sore.................................... with him. I know she's your best friend, but that's beside the.................................... - you had no right to invite her on the trip without asking me. 6 It's hard to believe that Sandra.................................... 50 this year, isn't it? The police officer.................................... her gun on the man and told him to lie down on the floor. I.................................... to say something to Connor, but he had already left. 7 Jacob.................................... his doctor's advice and went away for a few days. Hannah decided to start wearing earrings and her friends soon.................................... suit. I.................................... the speaker's argument up to the final point, but I don't understand where his conclusions came from. 8 My dad's involved in.................................... a campaign to stop them building the new motorway near here. These vehicles have the advantage of.................................... on electricity, rather than petrol. You won't be able to avoid................................ into problems, so just deal with them when they arise. Idioms K Write one word in each gap. 1 From our house to the centre of town is about four miles as the................................... flies. 2 I know the brochure said the villa was 'peaceful', but it was actually in the.................................... of nowhere. 3 As soon as we got to the pool, the kids made a.................................... for the shop selling ice creams. 4 The soldier shouted 'Halt!' and I stopped dead in my..................................... 5 Cambodia? That's a bit off the beaten.................................... , isn't it? 6 Take the next left, then first right, and just follow your.................................... until you see the stadium on your left. 7 Wandering the streets of Prague, I lost my................................... , so I had to ask the way to the castle. 8 We were quite lucky because our hotel was only a.................................... throw away from the beach. 9 It's about 20 minutes longer, but if we take the scenic................................ you'll be able to take some photos. 10 Turn right here and we'll.................................... a short cut through the side roads. 66  Movement and transport Unit 8 Word formation L Use the word given in capitals at the end of the line to form a word that fits in the space in the same line. The stairlift It's ironic that the very things that are supposed to provide access to the (1).................................... UP floors of buildings - stairs - often, in fact, make them (2)..................................... For many elderly ACCESS people and others with limited (3).................................... , getting upstairs can be a daily problem MOBILE to be (4)..................................... However, stairlifts have been helping people solve that problem COME since they first appeared in the US in the 1930s. Designs have (5).................................... many GO changes over the years and stairlifts have become (6).................................... safer and easier to PROGRESS use. Most consist of a seat which moves along rails that run along the wall. The user controls how (7).................................... the seat moves along the rails as it travels from RAPID the bottom of the stairs to the (8).................................... at the top. In today's models, the LAND (9).................................... is controlled by computers to give a smooth ride and the components are MOVE designed to (10).................................... constant use. Many people have been given a new lease STAND of life by the stairlift. M Each of the words in bold is in an incorrect form. Rewrite them correctly. 1 The situation has been getting unsteady worse for many years now. 2 The heavy snow meant that the mountain roads were passage for over a week. 3 People are being advised not to travel to the area because of the outgoing conflict. 4 Luckily, Tyrone made a very sped recovery after the car accident. 5 The service at the hotel was upstanding, and I'd definitely recommend it. 6 Every child needs security and unstable in their life. 7 It's not always easy to make the transitional from primary school to secondary school. 8 I sat completely motion as the spider crawled along my arm. N The prefix de-, as in destabilise, can be added to some verbs, nouns and adjectives in order to give them a negative meaning. Tick the words which can be made negative by adding de-. 1 caffeinated 4 hydrate 7 satisfy........................ 2 direct 5 motivate 8 sensitise......................... 3 form 6 regulate 9 understand......................... 10 value 0 Complete the sentences using words formed in exercise N. 1 Drinking alcohol when it's very hot can.................................... you. 2 The government should.................................... this industry. 3 I have to drink.................................... coffee or I can't sleep. 4 If you don't tell staff how well they're doing, it can.................................... them. 5 Don't you think violent films.................................... people to violence in real life? 6 You'll.................................... your feet if you don't get shoes that fit you properly. 7 They've decided to.................................... the currency, so it'll be worth a lot less. 67  4 REVIEW Units 7 and 8 A Write one word in each gap. The Segway The Segway HT (Human Transporter) (1)......................... first presented to the public in 2001. It is a revolutionary form of transport, which runs (2)......................... electricity and allows the rider to balance on a small platform between two wheels. Balance (3)......................... maintained by two computers, which monitor the Segway's (4)......................... move. As the vehicle moves off balance, the computers turn the wheels to compensate, (5)......................... this way restoring balance. If the rider leans forwards or backwards, the Segway moves in that direction in an attempt to steady (6).......................... If the rider continues to lean, the vehicle continues to move at up to 10 mph. Once you are (7)......................... the move, the Segway (8)......................... be steered in the direction you want to go using the handlebars. (9)......................... are thought to be a number of advantages to the Segway for short, inner-city journeys. It's a very safe, environmentally-friendly means of transport, and a number of organisations, such as police forces and postal services, consider (10)......................... to be a possible alternative to cars and bicycles. (1 mark per answer) B Complete the sentences by changing the form of the word in capitals. 11 After a successful career, he retired in 2004, but now he's making a.................................... and he's released a new CD. COME 12 Mum's fine after her operation, although she's still a little.................................... on her feet. STEADY 13 I found her last book of poetry very..................................... MOVE 14 At the back of the cave, there was a narrow.................................... that seemed to lead further into the mountain. PASS 15 The party has a number of................................... ideas which should appeal to many undecided voters. PROGRESS 16 The long-running civil war has.................................... the whole country. STABLE 17 Wilkinson went on to become a great athlete, his disability..................................... STAND 18 I can't believe you got another.................................... ticket! SPEED (1 mark per answer) C Circle the correct word. 19 Would you mind just taking / running / doing me a bath while I get changed? 20 I didn't tell you about the possibility of the trip because I didn't want to lift / raise / boost your hopes. 21 The colour of the computer is beside the point/subject/theme - I want to know that it's reliable. 22 When I got the opportunity to go to China, I moved/jumped/ran at the chance. 23 The lecture was interesting, but I found the argument quite difficult to track/watch / follow. 24 I didn't think my plan was going to work, but everything fell/went/moved into place at the right time. 25 We were enjoying the barbecue, but the weather started to go/turn/do a little cold so we went inside. 26 Millions of children around the world will go/get/suffer hungry tonight, and I don't think that's fair. (1 mark per answer) 68 D Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between three and eight words, including the word given. 27 Smith gave the ball to Jones just before the referee blew his whistle. by Jones........................................................................... Smith just before the referee blew his whistle. 28 Reports say that police have arrested a number of people since the robbery. reported There........................................................................... a number of arrests since the robbery. 29 Try to stay level with the other runners at the start of the race. fall Try........................................................................... the other runners at the start of the race. 30 The police have put a barrier around the building to keep people out. cordoned The building........................................................................... police. 31 A friend of ours fixed our car for us. had We........................................................................... our car. 32 The managing director always likes to welcome new employees on their first day. point The managing director always........................................................................... new employees on their first day. 33 After a slow start, the audience were soon laughing at the comedian's jokes. had After a slow start, the comedian........................................................................... at his jokes. 34 I just need to finish this work and then I'll call you. way I just need to........................................................................... and then I'll call you. 12 marks per answer) E Choose the correct answer. 35 Why don't you have a doctor....................... at your 39 The company is expected......................... a healthy arm if it's hurting you? profit this year. A to look C look A make C making B looking D for looking B to make D for making 36 I wonder if you could let me know what the 40 Maria was just walking along the road when someone......................... fare to Berlin is? on a motorbike......................... her handbag. A round C two-way A clutched C grabbed B double D return B clenched D fumbled 37 Mr Parris said he'd like......................... by Monday, if 41 Fred Astaire is one of my favourite dancers and I that's possible. love the way he seems to......................... across A finished the report C the report finished the floor. B the report will be D have the report A glide C skid finished finished B march D dash 38 Ben crept......................... on Lisa and put his hands 42 The new Arts Centre seems to have been over her eyes.......................... construction for quite some time. A out C off A in C on B round D up B under D below 11 mark per answer) Total mark:......../50 69  9 UNIT Grammar II Modals and semi-modals The nine main medals (will, would, can, could, may, might, shall, should, must) have only one form (ie they do not change tense or person) and are followed by a simple or continuous bare infinitive (eg could + do, be doing, have done, have been doing). They can also be followed by a bare infinitive in the passive (eg could + be done, have been done). Semi-modals have similar meanings to modals. They include: need (to), ought to, had better and have (got) to. Some semi-modals, such as had better, do not change tense or person. Others, such as have (got) to, do. Some semi-modals can be used in combination with medals, producing phrases such as might have to. Real ability Current or general ability can, can't You can't really speak seven languages fluently, can you? Past ability could, couldn't There's no way you could read when you were two! Decisions made now about can, can't, could, I can get you a paper when I go to the shop, if you like. future ability couldn't Future ability will/won't be able to One day, maybe, all adults will be able to read and write. Hypothetical Current or general could, couldn't I couldn't go on a quiz show. I'd be too scared! ability hypothetical ability Future hypothetical ability could, couldn't I could go with them to the cinema tomorrow but I won't because I've already seen the film. Past hypothetical ability could have, They could have asked the Prime Minister much more couldn't have searching questions. I wonder why they didn't. The full negative form of modals is written as two words, eg could not. The exception is cannot, which is one word. Can and could cannot be used as infinitives. We can use to be able to instead. ✓ I'd love to be able to come with you to the cinema tomorrow but I just can't. We don't usually use could for past ability on one occasion. We use was/were able to, managed or succeeded, etc. ✓ Luckily, she was able to finish the article in time. However, with verbs such as see, hear, feel, etc we can use could for past ability on one occasion. ✓ I could see that she was tired. Permission Asking for permission may, could, couldn't, can, can't Can I finish watching this before I go to bed? Giving/refusing permission may, may not, could, couldn't, can, can't No, you can't. May is more polite and formal than could, and could is more polite and formal than can. We don't usually use modals to talk about past permission. We can use was/were allowed to. ✓ We were allowed to buy one comic each. However, we do use could to talk about past permission in reported speech. (see Unit 25 for more information) ✓ Mum said we could buy one comic each. Asking for and giving advice should, shouldn't, ought to, oughtn't to, had better You should try to get that poem published. We can only use hadn't better in questions. ✓ Hadn't you better check that these facts are actually true? We can also use mighVmay as well to give advice and make suggestions. This suggests that, although the suggestion is not perfect, there is no better option. ✓ We may as well watch this as there's nothing else on. 70  Modals and semi-modals Unit 9 Criticism Criticising past behaviour should have, shouldn't have, You shouldn't have spoken to Mrs Todd ought to have, oughtn't to have like that. Expressing annoyance at past could have, might have You could/might have told me you were behaviour going to be late! Criticising general behaviour will He will slam the door every time he goes out. Criticising a specific example of would You would take the car just when I wanted to someone's general behaviour go out. -I We can also use might as we// to suggest criticism. ✓ I might as well be dead for all you care. Obligation Current or general obligation must, mustn't, have (got/ to, You have to be a good communicator to be a need (to/ press spokesperson. A lack of current or general don't have to, haven't got to, You don't a/ways need to have a degree to obligation needn't, don't need (to/ become a journalist. Future obligation will have to, must, mustn't, You'll have to do quite a lot of research before have (got) to, (will/ need (to/ you write this report. A lack of future obligation don't/won't have to, haven't got to, I'm glad we won't have to write any more needn't, don't/won't need (to) essays on this course. Past obligation had to, needed (to) We had to come up with three questions each. A lack of past obligation didn't have to, didn't need (to), In the past, politicians didn't have to deal with needn't have being in a 24-hour media spotlight. We are more likely to use must for personal obligation (making our own decision about what we must do} and have to for external obligation (someone else making a decision about what we must do). Using must for questions is extremely formal. We usually use have to. ✓ Do you have to have a degree to be a journalist? Mustn't is used for prohibition. Don't have to is used for a lack of obligation. We can use didn't have to and didn't need to for things that we did or didn't actually do. However, we only use needn't have done for things that we actually did but weren't obliged to do. Degrees of ertainty Certainty (or near certainty} about will, would, must, can, can't, 'There's someone at the door.' now, the future or generally could, couldn't 'That'll be the postman.' 'It can't be. He's already been.' Certainty (or near certainty} will have, won't have, would have, 'They won't have heard the news, will they?' about the past wouldn't have, must have, can't 'They must have heard by now, surely.' have, couldn't have Probability about now, the future should, shouldn't, ought to, 'The weather should be good tomorrow, or generally oughtn't to, may/might well (not), shouldn't it?' could well, might easily 'Actually, the forecast said it may well rain.' Probability about the past should have, shouldn't have, 'Jan should have finished writing her article ought to have, oughtn't to have, by now, shouldn't she?' may/might well (not/ have, might 'She may well have done, but I haven't seen easily (not/ have it yet.' Possibility about now, the future or could, may (not/, might, mightn't, I might Uust) have time to get to the library generally may/mighVcould 1ust before it closes. Possibility about the real past could have, may (not) have, might Jim might not have checked his e-mail yet. have, mightn't have 5 I... should and should have can be used in that clauses after words expressing importance and reactions. ✓ It's strange that you should say that. ✓ Was it necessary that Alan should have been invited to the meeting? 71 - Unit 9 Grammar A Circle the correct word or phrase. If both are correct, circle both. 1 You can't/ couldn't really talk when you were one year old, can/ could you? 2 We can/ could give you a lift hom