UPSC BTS: BreakThrough Series Introductory Lecture PDF

UPSC BTS : BreakThrough Series Introductory Lecture By: Ankit Porwal Some Prelims questions and source tracing along with proofs. This pdf has some random previous year question of history subject along with their source proofs. The purpose of this explained video document is to find the “history of...

UPSC BTS : BreakThrough Series Introductory Lecture By: Ankit Porwal Some Prelims questions and source tracing along with proofs. This pdf has some random previous year question of history subject along with their source proofs. The purpose of this explained video document is to find the “history of history questions” which comes in prelims examination i.e. to provide you source tracing of history previous year questions which can be smartly covered in short period of time to enhance return on time investment. As these days in prelims, history (mostly ancient and medieval) questions are considered most unpredictable and unsolvable. So to simplify it let us understand the “history of history questions”. (Rest explained in video). Q1: According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, which of the following are correct? 2022 1. A person could be a slave as a result of a judicial punishment. 2. If a female slave bore her master a son, she was legally free. 3. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the master's son. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3- ans Q2 :With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as : 2023 (a) capital cities (b) ports (c) centres of iron-and-steel making (d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras Explanation: (b) Q3- In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located? 2023 (a) Andhra (b) Gandhara (c) Kalinga (d) Magadha Q.4 With reference to the period of Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul were well known as : Pre 2020 [a) ports handling foreign trade [b) capital of powerful kingdoms [c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture [d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres Q.5 With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as : 2023 (a) capital cities (b) ports (c) centres of iron-and-steel making (d) shrines of Jain Tirthankaras ans: (b) Q:6 With reference to ancient Indian History, consider the following pairs: 2023 Literary work Author 1. Devichandragupta Bilhana 2. Hammira-Mahakavya Nayachandra Suri 3. Milinda-panha Nagarjuna 4. Nitivakyamrita Somadeva Suri How many of the above pairs are correctly matched? (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four Ans: (c) Literary Work Author Devichandragupta Vishakadatta HammiraMahakavya Naya Chandra Suri Milinda-panha Nagasena Nitivakyamrita Somadeva Suri Q:7 With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts - 2022 1. Nettipakarana 2. Parishishtaparvan 3. Avadanashataka 4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana Which of the above are Jaina texts? A 1, 2 and 3 only B 2 and 4 only C 1, 3 and 4 only D 2, 3 and 4 only The correct answer is B. Q:8 With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla and Kshemeshvara were famous. - 2021 (a) Jain monks (b) playwrights - ans (c) temple architects (d) philosophers Q:9 With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorizing of chronicles, dynastic histories and Epictales was the profession of who of the following? – 2016 (a) Shramana (b) Parivraaj (c) Agrahaarika (d) Maagadha- ans Q:10 With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term Araghatta’ refers to. 2016 (a) bonded labour (b) land grants made to military officers (c) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land- ans (d) wastel and converted to cultivated land Q:11 With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period, which one of the following statements is correct? 2019 (a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people. (b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire. (c) The forced labourer was entitled to weekly wages. (d) The eldest son of the labourer was sent as the forced labourer. Ans : A Q:12 In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs: 2016 Term Description Eripatti Land, revenue set apart for the maintenance of the village tank Taniyurs Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins Ghatikas Colleges generally attached to the temples Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 3 Ans: D Q;13 With reference to the history of India, the terms “kulyavapa” and “dronavapa” denote : 2020 (a) measurement of land (b) coins of different monetary value (c) classification of urban land (d) religious rituals Ans: A Q:14 Which one of the following was a very important seaport in the Kakatiya kingdom? : 2017 (a) Kakinada (b) Motupalli (c) Machilipatnam (Masulipatnam) (d) Nelluru Q:15 With reference to the Indian History, Alexander Rea, A. H. Longhurst, Robert Sewell, James Burgess and Walter Elliot were associated with: 2023 a) archaeological excavations b) establishment of English Press in Colonial India c) establishment of churches in Princely States d) construction of railways in Colonial India answer-A Q.16 Consider the following events in the history of India: 2020 1-Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja 2-Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman – I 3-Establishment of Chola Parantaka – I 4-Pala dynasty founded by Gopala What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time ? [a) 2-1-4-3 [b) 3-1-4-2 [c) 2-4-1-3[d) 3-4-1-2 ans-c Q:17 With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs: 2020 Famous Place Present State 1. Bhilsa Madhya Pradesh 2. Dwarasamudra Maharashtra 3. Girinagar Gujarat 4. Sthaneshwara Uttar Pradesh Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? [a) 1 and 3 only [b) 1 and 4 only [c) 2 and 3 only [d) 2 and 4 only Ans – A Q.18 Consider the following pairs: Site of Ashoka’s major rock edicts – Location in the State of 1. Dhauli – Odisha 2. Erragudi – Andhra Pradesh 3. Jaugada – Madhya Pradesh 4. Kalsi – Karnataka How many pairs given above are correctly matched: a) Only one pair b) Only two pairs c) Only three pairs d) All four pairs Correct Answer: b) Only two pairs BTS-2 (Breakthrough series: Lecture 2) Total tentative time of BTS : 8-10 hours By: Ankit Porwal [email protected] Contents of this lecture: 1. Important terminologies and their short explanation, such terminologies are unconventional and generally not found/accessible through mainstream history resources such as NCERTs etc. 2. History maps and important sites on map from exam PoV. 3. Inter-linkages and extra verbal information to be narrated. Further lectures will include : 1. Fast coverage of important points from scholarly resources (some 10 nos. resources which are still away from normal market resources) of history from where UPSC is repetitively asking prelims questions. 2. Covering all relevant NCERT important points viz. 6TH class , 7th class ,11th class themes , 12th class themes history. 3. Important points from Tamilnadu board history book 4. My own notes information (if time permits then only). Who will be benefitted ? : - Those who found history unsolvable or didn’t cover ancient or medieval history yet due to poor return on investment. - Those who failed in prelims just because they could not attempt history questions comfortably. - Those who are watching this lecture. :) How to proceed now ? (General suggestions for prelims) - Tricks : eg. “Pratiloma” - 100% remembering isn’t required. - Utilize others; hard work. Be smart. You don’t have time for experimentation. - Ask a question when u study anything - This is value addition. i.e. this is “not all but sufficient” content to make u confident before entering into exam hall. - Don’t judge game of history too soon. - Don’t play with luck. Prepare everything in capacity. - Come out of comfort zone. - Give time it history will reward. - Lastly : Darna nahi hai history se !! calm rehne se kaam hoga !! GLOS SARY bhogta one who enjoys: used by extension fot those who enjoyed tevenue tights ovet cettain lands y Terminologies acharya teacher adhyaksha superintendent/government official of importance adivasi the mdlgenous mha bltant - now used sometimes for the Scheduled Tnbe ( S T ) of India agnikula ruling families claiming ancestry from a hero who sprang out of a sacrificial fire agrahara donation of land or village to brahmans, usually by royalty ahlmsa non-violence A/lvika a heterodox sect of the time of the Buddha Aft'ar Vaishnava poets and composers of hymns belonging to the Tamil devotional movement amatya designation of a high official anuloma literally, m the directIOn of the body hair, therefore observmg the caste hierarchy even in marriages across castes apsara celestial woman/nymph aranya forest/wilderness artha livelihood/economy aryavarta the land inhabited by aryas ashrama hermitage/refuge; also used with reference to the four stages or ashramas of the human life-cycle - brahmacharin/studentship, grihastha/householdership, vanaprastha/initiating renunciation, samnyasa/asceticism ashtakula-adhikarana administrative body ashvamedha sacrifice performed by those desirous of being accorded royal status, and by kmgs atman soul ayukta official designation banjaras generally cattle pastoralists who were also carriers of goods exchanged in trade banya member of a trading community Bhagavata associated with the worship of Vishnu bhak ti devotion, a characteristic feature of what modern historians have called the Bhakti movement, focusing on devotion to a deity 5 10 bhukti administtative unit bodhisattva one who wotks fot the welfate of the wotld and voluntatily postpones telease ftom tebitth; also tefets sometimes to an incatnation of the Buddha ptiot to his own bitth in the wotld brahmacharin celibate studentship, the fitst of the fout stages of the ideal life-cycle brahmadeya village ot land donated to a btahman, who teceived the tevenue that came ftom it brahma-kshatra the claim to an ancestty associated with both btahman and kshatriya brahman the fitst in tank among the fout varnas of Hindu society, ftequently ttanslated as caste, but in some contexts should mote cottectly be ttanslated as titual status; the btahman was ptimatily a titual specialist and also ptovided the sttuctutes fot fotmal education in Sansktit Brahmanas Vedic exegetical texts fot tituals brahmi the eatliest decipheted sctipt of India and dating to histotical times chaitya a sacted enclosute - latet took the fotm of a hall and became an essential focus of Buddhist wotship togethet with the stupa chakravartinlchakravartigal!chakkavatti univetsal monatch chandala a gtoup ftom among the outcast section of society, gtadually tegatded as untouchable Chandravamsha the lunat lineage, indicative of toyal status chetti!chettiyar metchants daivaputra Iitetally, the son of a deity; a toyal title dakshina sactificial fee; the southetn ditection dana donation/votive offeting danda fotce/coetcion/punishment dasa initially 'the Othet' of the arya - Iatet a slave ot setvant desha tettitoty ot an administtative unit; a tegion devadana usually land ot tevenue donated to a temple devadasi female slave of the gods, used with tefetence to women dedicated to the temple devanagari the latet, evolved fotm of the brahmi sctipt, also used fot some modetn Indian languages Dhammaldharma piety, motality, ethics, virtue/the social and teligious otdet Dharma-shastra texts attempting to codify the social and titual duties, and obligations of the membets of the fout varnas and the telationship between them Digambara litetally, 'sky-clad', one of the two main Jaina schools digvijayin the conquetot of the fout quartets dinara a coin based on the Roman denarius doab the land between two tivets dronavapa a measute of gtain dvija litetally, the twice-botn, tefets to eithet the highest varna ot the thtee uppet varnas of Hindu caste society, whete the fitst birth is the physical birth and the second is the initiation into varna status 511 G L O S SARY GLOS SARY eripatti land from which the revenue was used t o maintain irrigation tanks gahapati a landowner gana-rajya oligarchy/chiefdom garbha-griha literally, the womb-house, the sanctum sanctorum of the Hindu temple gavunda categories of landowners; could be a member of a local administrative committee mahasammata 'the great elect', the person elected t o rule and signifying the origin of government in Buddhist theory mahasenapati commander-in-chief of the army mahattara head of the village Mahayana the Great Vehicle, a major school of Buddhism mana a large unit of weight ghatika an educational centre often attached to a temple ghi clarified butter grama village guru teacher or guide heggade a term used in the peninsula for a landowner Hinayana The Lesser Vehicle, a major school of Buddhism itihasa-purana sections of texts claiming to refer to events of the past jana people, subjects, tribe, clan janapada literally, where the clan or tribe places its foot; the territory initially occupied by a clan and which could evolve into a state jati caste; a social segment identified by membership through birth, marriage circles, mandala a cosmogram, projecting the universe in a geometric pattern, often concen­ tric with indications of cardinal points and sometimes square; also refers to a theory of interstate relations where the king desirous of victory is at the centre and the pattern lays out potential allies and enemies_ mandalam an administrative unit manigramam a formal association or guild of merchants mantra sounds, words, verses associate with magical and religious connotations marga the path/mainstream matha a hospice or a monastery attached to a temple and often a centre of education matsyanyaya a political theory where a parallel is drawn between a condition of occupation, custom and location jyestha elder, as in the guild-like organization of the shreni kahapanalkarshapanalpana widely used coin series, often silver kakini copper coins Kalamukha a Shaiva sect kaliyuga the fourth and final age of the great cycle of time, the mahayuga kalpa a frame of time-reckoning kama desire Kapalika a Shaiva sect karma action or deed, and also used in the theory of future births being conditioned by the deeds of the present life kassaka a cultivator, not as well-off as the gahapati kayastha a caste, chiefly of scribes kharoshthi a script used in north-west India and derived from the Aramaic script kshatrapa associated with the administrative title of satrap, and used specifically for some rulers of western India kshatriya the second in rank among the four varnas; included a warrior aristocracy, landowners and royalty kshetra field kula family kuladevi clan goddess kulyavapa a winnowing basket kumaramatya a title of honour, often used for a prince kutumbi householder lingam the phallic symbol, associated with the worship of Shiva mahadanas great gifts/donations maharajadhiraja great king of kings mahasamanta ruler or governor but subordinate to an overlord drought when tanks dry up with the big fish eating the small fish, and a condition of political anarchy when the strong devour the weak maya illusion mlechchha outside the pale of caste society/impure moksha liberation from rebirth nadu a territorial unit in south India nagarashresthin the chief merchant of the city nataka dance. mime, drama Nayanars Shaiva poets of Tatnil devotionalism nigama a market or a ward of a city nirvana release from the cycle of rebirth nishka a unit of value, later used for a coin paan betel-leaf Pali an Indo-Aryan language in which the Buddhist Canon of the Theravada sect was recorded palli a hamlet, sometimes also a small market centre panchakula administrative body panchayat an administrative body, said to be a council of five Pashupata a Shaiva sect pipal ficus religiosa tree pradesha an administrative unit pratiloma literally, against the direction of the body hair, therefore against the hierarchy of castes in relation to marriage purohita priest and mentor, especially in families of status ra;adhira;a royal title ra;asuya sacrifice performed to enhance royal or chiefly status ra;uka official deSignation ranaka rank or status given to a landed intermediary rasa a mood or an emotion evoked in creative literature, music and dance 512 513 GLOS SARY G L O S S A RY rashtra country/administrative unit sabha an assembly, usually small and of special persons samanta initially a term used for a neighbour; later it referred to a landed intermediary subordinate to the king samiti an assembly samnyasi ascetic samsara used most commonly to refer to the cycle of transmigration sangha frequently used to indicate the organizational Order in the Shramanic religions and more commonly in Buddhism sankirna jati mixed caste sarthavaha caravaneer sati a virtuous woman; one who has immolated herself on the funeral pyre of her husband varna-ashrama-dharma upholding a society organized on the basis of varna and the social and sacred duties that this entailed velala peasants or landowners of various categories vihara Buddhist monastery vina lyre vishaya an administrative unit setthi merchant shakti power vishti forced labour or labour in lieu of a tax, often compared to the corvee vratya initially referring to those who were thought not to conform to orthodoxy, it came to mean degenerate forms in various categories yaksha a demi-god yoni female organs of generation yuga a period of time ziarat a place of pilgrimage Shangam assembly; more specifically the earliest literary corpus of Tamil poems shastra texts on various subjects viewed as authoritative shatamana coin shikhara tower surmounting the sanctum of the temple shraddha worship of the ancestors at a particular time of the year shreni formal association of members of a profession; a guild shudra the fourth and lowest varna shunya the zero Shvetambara literally, clad in white, one of the major Jaina schools soma the plant from which the j uice was prepared and drunk in a ritual context during some Vedic sacrifices, and thought to be a hallucinogen stri-dhana the wealth of a woman given specifically to her for her own use stupa tumulus-like Structure containing relics of the Buddha or others and wor- shipped by Buddhists Suryavamsha solar lineage suvarna literally, of good colour and another name for gold svyamavara the ceremony at which a princess chose her husband from among an assembly of suitors thakkura the rank or status of a landed intermediary Theravada an early Buddhist sect tirtha literally a ford, more frequently a place of pilgrimage tirthankara literally, a ford-maker; the teachers of Jainism ur village assembly in south India vaishya the third status in the varna hierarchy concerned theoretically with raising livestock, cultivation and trade valanadu administrative unit in south India vana forest va,rna literally, colour; used for the four castes often as ritual statuses; the reference was not to skin pigmentation since in one text the four colours listed are white, yellow, red and black SI5 Glossary Acheulian tools: an assemblage of stone tools marked by advanced and increasingly symmetrical handaxes and cleavers; primarily associated with the lower palaeolithic, they continue into later parts of the stone age as well agrahara: land or village gifted by a king ahimsa: non-injury, non-violence Ajivikas: An ancient religious sect, associated with Makkhali Gosala akam: Sangam love poems Alvars: the Vaishnava saint-poets of early medieval South India amphorae: a type of Roman pottery—jars with a large oval body, narrow cylindrical neck, and two handles anekantavada: the Jaina doctrine of the manifold nature of reality animal domestication: the process of selective breeding of animals, which involves removing them from their natural habitat and rearing them under artificial conditions under human control for purposes of human gain antarala: the vestibule or antechamber of a temple anvikshiki: literally, ‘looking at’; logical reasoning Apabhramsha: a stage of the later development of the Prakrit language up to the end of the 1st millennium CE araghatta: the Persian wheel, or a similar contrivance Aramaic: a language and script. The Aramaic or North Semitic script was the official script of the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Achaemenid empires; Ashokan inscriptions indicate the use of the language and script in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent Aranyakas: literally ‘forest books’; part of the Vedic corpus Archaeo-botany: the study of ancient plant remains archaeological sources: all tangible, material remains archaeology: the study of the human past through material remains archaeometry: a range of scientific techniques and analyses involving the use of measurement in order to analyse ancient objects or materials Ardha-Magadhi: an eastern dialect of Prakrit; the earliest Jaina texts are written in this dialect ardhamandapa: the hall preceding the sanctum in a temple arhat: a person who has attained enlightenment Ariya-sachchani: the Four Noble Truths related to suffering; an important part of the Buddha’s teaching artefact: a portable object made or altered by human hands ashrama(s): the four stages of life—brahmacharya (celibate studenthood), grihastha (the householder stage), vanaprastha (partial renunciation), and sannyasa (complete renunciation); can also mean a hermitage assemblage: in archaeology, refers collectively to all the industries found at a site astika schools: philosophical schools that accepted the authority of the Vedas, comprising those that later came to be described as the six classical systems of Hindu philosophy atman: the imperishable ultimate reality within the self, according to the Upanishads Australopithecus: a hominid genus avatara: an incarnation of the god Vishnu Ayyavole: a powerful merchant guild of early medieval South India bands: small and usually nomadic communities, usually related to each other through kinship bhagavata: a worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna bhikkhu: Pali (Sanskrit bhikshu), literally ‘one who lives by begging alms’; a Buddhist monk bhikkhuni: a Buddhist nun biface: handaxe Black and Red Ware (BRW): Pottery whose surface is partly black and partly red, found in various different chronological and cultural contexts blade: a flake tool, the length of which is more than twice its width bodhisattva: a future Buddha boustrephedon style: a style of writing in which consecutive lines start in opposite directions brahma: sacerdotal power brahmacharya: the stage of celibate studenthood in the ashrama scheme brahmadeya: land gifted to Brahmanas, generally by kings brahman: the imperishable, ultimate reality in the universe, according to the Upanishads Brahmanas: Members of the premier varna in the Brahmanical varna order; prose explanations of the Vedic Samhitas Brahmi: an ancient Indian script burin: a small stone tool, made on a blade, with a ‘screw-driver’ edge burnished ware: a pottery whose surface is polished with a hard instrument (made of stone, wood, metal, etc.) before firing, in order to produce a shine that remains after the firing process. cairn stone circle: a type of megalithic burial, marked by a stone circle and a heap of large, piled-up stones cairn: a type of megalithic burial, marked by a heap of large, piledup stones Carbon-14 (C-14)/radiocarbon dating: a scientific dating method used in archaeology, based on the principle of radioactive decay; used to date organic material carburization: heating iron in association with carbon to make steel celts: ground and polished handaxes; typical neolithic tools Cenozoic: ‘the age of the mammals’; comprised the Tertiary and Quaternary eras; began about 100 mya chaitya: a Buddhist shrine chalcolithic: a culture marked by the use of copper/bronze and stone chamber tomb: a megalithic grave consisting of a chamber, usually consisting of two or four vertical slabs of stone covered by a horizontal capstone charana: school of Vedic study Charvaka: an atheistic materialist philosophical school, also known as Lokayata chiefdom stage: a transitional stage between a pre-state kinship society and a civil state society chopper: a large, unifacial tool chopping tool: a tool made on a core or pebble, flaked alternately on both sides to produce a wavy cutting edge cist: an underground megalithic chamber tomb made of vertical and horizontal stone slabs clan: comprises several unilineal descent groups who trace their descent from a common ancestor, either actual or mythical cleaver: a flattish tool made on a broad rectangular or triangular flake, one end of which has a broad and straight cutting edge cognitive archaeology: a branch of archaeology that deals with ways of thinking, beliefs, and religion 646 Glossary copper hoards: certain specific types of copper objects found in protohistoric contexts in the doab as well as in some other parts of the subcontinent core tools: stone tools made on cores, usually large in size cowries: marine shells, once used as currency in many parts of the world; in India cowries from the Maldive islands were used as currency from ancient times till the colonial period cranial capacity: brain size culture: a word with many meanings, associated with patterns of thought and behaviour learnt by an individual from the larger social group; in its narrowest technical sense in archaeology, it refers to a recurring assemblage of material traits dakshina: sacrifical fee Dakshinapatha: the great southern trade route dana: ritual giving darshana: literally, ‘view’; philosophy dhamma: a Pali word (Sanskrit, dharma), referring to the ideal conduct of an individual living in society dhammachakka-pavattana: Pali, literally ‘turning the wheel of dhamma’; the Buddha’s first sermon in the deer park near Benaras dhamma-mahamatas: a new cadre of officials created by Ashoka to propagate dhamma dharma: a Sanskrit word that is difficult to translate; the proper, ideal conduct of a person as a member of society; a course of action which leads to the fulfillment of the goals of human life. Dharmashastra: a group of Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with dharma Dharmasutras: the earliest Dharmashastra texts, written in the sutra (aphoristic) style diffusionist theories: theories which explain cultural innovation and change as a result of stimulus or influence from a point of origin Digambara: literally ‘sky-clad’; a Jaina sect discoid core technique: a type of prepared core technique used to make stone tools dolmenoid cist: a megalithic chamber tomb that is partly underground dolmen: a megalithic chamber tomb that is fully above ground-level Dravida: the southern style of temple architecture, marked, among other things, by a pyramidal shikhara (tower) Dravidian: a family of languages, including Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada dvija: literally ‘twice born’; those entitled to the performance of the upanayana (sacred thread) ceremony, which is considered analogous to a second birth, viz., the upper three varnas, namely the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas early Harappan: the early, formative, proto-urban phase of the Harappan culture Eight-fold Path: the path taught by the Buddha for release from suffering elementary family: a married couple and their children, who may or may not live together epigraphy: the study of inscriptions epi-palaeolithic: a transitional stage of stone tool making, marked by tools that are smaller than those typical of the upper palaeolithic, but smaller than microliths ethno-archaeology: a branch of archaeology that studies the behaviour and practices of living communities in order to interpret the archaeological evidence related to communities who lived in the past extended burial: a burial in which the body is laid out in an extended position extended family: two or more elementary families (or parts of them) joined together factory site: a place where tools were made faunal analysis: the analysis of animal bones feudalism school: with reference to early medieval India, a school that argues that this was a period of political and economic fragmentation field archaeology: the exploration and excavation of sites food-producing society: a society which meets at least half its food needs for at least part of the year through the domestication of animals and/or plants, in a context where animals and plants are not tied to their natural habitat Four Noble Truths (Ariya-sachchani): an important part of the Buddha’s teaching, viz., there is suffering; it has a cause; it can be eliminated; and the way to eliminate it is to follow the Eight-fold Path fractional burial: the burial of disaggregated bones gahapati: Pali for Sanskrit grihapati, i.e., householder; a wealthy property-owner Gaja-Lakshmi: a popular representation of the goddess Lakshmi, flanked by two elephants, sometimes holding jars in their trunks gana: a word which has many meanings, including an oligarchy garbha-griha: the inner sanctum of a temple, where the image of the main deity is placed and worshipped garuda: a fantastic bird, the vehicle of Vishnu genus: an assemblage of related species gotra: the clan system of the Brahmanas; sometimes also applicable to non-Brahmanas Grantha script: a South Indian script used for writing Sanskrit grihastha: the householder stage in the ashrama scheme hagiography: sacred biography handaxe: a roughly triangular-shaped stone tool, usually made on cores and flaked on both sides Henotheism/Kathenotheism: a term used by Max Müller to refer to the phenomenon in the Rig Veda, where whichever deity is invoked is spoken of as a supreme god Hinayana: literally ‘the lesser vehicle’; a set of Buddhist schools historiography: the construction and writing of history history: the study of the human past; more specifically, the study of literate societies of the past Holocene/Recent: the seventh, still-continuing epoch of the Cenozoic era; began about 10,000 ya hominid: species similar to humans Homo erectus: a hominid species that had a fully erect posture Homo habilis: literally ‘hand-using man’; a hominid species Homo sapiens neanderthalis: a species of Homo sapiens that became extinct Homo sapiens: ‘thinking man’; anatomically modern humans household: people who share a common residence hundikas: bills of exchange used by traders in early medieval India Indo-European: a family of languages that includes Sanskrit, the modern north Indian languages, and many other languages of Asia and Europe Indo-Aryan: a sub-group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the IndoEuropean family of languages Indo-Aryans: speakers of Indo-Aryan languages in situ: in its original place industry: comprises similar artefacts made of the same material found at a site inhumation: burial janapada: literally, ‘foothold of a tribe’; a territorial state; a region consisting of urban and rural settlements, along with its inhabitants Jatakas: one of the 15 books of the Khuddaka Nikaya, containing stories of the previous births of the Buddha Glossary jati: a word with several meanings including caste, birth, and type. jina: literally ‘victor’; a Jaina saint jiva: a word with many meanings in different traditions; in the context of Jaina philosophy, variously translated as sentient essence, life monad, or soul kani rights: rights over land in early medieval South India, sometimes also associated with certain duties and obligations kara-shasanas: tax-paying agraharas karma: the doctrine according to which actions have consequences that manifest themselves in present and future lives Kharoshthi: an ancient script prevalent in the north-west kinship society: a pre-state society in which kinship is central kottam: settlement clusters in the Pallava kingdom, similar to the nadus kraya-shasana: a secular land-sale deed kshatra: secular power kshatrapa: a viceroy or subordinate ruler of the Scytho-Parthians; a title assumed by kings of the Kshaharata and Kardamaka dynasties Kshatriya: the varna associated with warfare and rulership kula: a word with a range of meanings, including an extended patrilineal family language: spoken symbols of communication late Harappan: the post-urban phase of the Harappan culture Levallois technique: an advanced technique of making flake tools by first preparing the core lineage: a group of unilineal kin linga: a phallic emblem of the god Shiva literary sources: texts, written or oral logo-syllabic script: a script in which each symbol stands for a word or syllable Lokayata: an atheistic materialist philosophical school, also known as Charvaka lower palaeolithic: the earliest part of the palaeolithic age, which ranged between about 2 mya to 100,000 ya Madhayamaka: a major Mahayana school founded by Nagarjuna, in which the idea of shunyata (emptiness) is of great importance mahajanapadas: the great states of the 6th century BCE mahakshatrapa: viceroy, subordinate ruler; a title assumed by some kings of the Kshaharata and Kardamaka dynasties Mahayana: literally ‘the greater vehicle’, a set of Buddhist schools mandapika: a local centre of exchange, in between small periodic markets and larger trade centres Manigramam: a powerful merchant guild of early medieval South India manuscripts: books or documents written by hand matha: monastery matriarchy: a social system in which dominant power and authority within the family is vested in women matrilineal system: a unilineal kinship system recognizing descent though the mother mature Harappan: the urban phase of the Harappan culture megalithic cultures: cultural remains found in the megaliths and at the habitation sites associated with them megaliths: monuments made of large, roughly-dressed slabs of stone menhir: a type of megalithic burial, marked by a single, large, standing stone mesolithic: Holocene stone age cultures, marked by the use of microliths, usually with a hunting-gathering subsistence base metrology: the measurement and arrangement of coins by weight microliths: tiny stone tools, ranging in length from under 1 cm to 5 cm microwear analysis: the study of wear marks on tools in order to understand their function middle palaeolithic: the middle part of the palaeolithic age, ranging between about 100,000 to 40,000 ya mithuna figures: amorous couples that occur often in the sculptural decoration of shrines moksha: liberation from the cycle of birth and death monogamy: a system in which a person has one spouse at a time monolatory: a belief in a supreme god while acknowledging the existence of other gods monotheism: a belief that there is only one god mukhamandapa: the porch of a temple multi-lineal system/cognatic system: a system which recognizes descent both through the mother and the father nadu: the locality, consisting of several settlements, in early medieval South India Nagara style: the northern style of temple architecture, marked, among other things, by a curvilinear shikara (tower) nagarakkani: land owned and managed by the nagaram nagarams: market or commercial centres in early medieval South India nagarattar: the corporate organization of the nagaram nagas: male serpent deities nagis/naginis: female serpent deities, consorts of the nagas Nalayira Divya Prabandham: a work by Nathamuni, containing the hymns of the Alvar saints Nastika schools: philosophical schools that did not accept the authority of the Vedas, e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka Nataraja: The dancing Shiva nattar: the leading men of the nadu (locality) in early medieval South India Nayanmars/Nayanars: The Shaiva saint-poets of early medieval South India negative feedback food procurement systems: food procurement systems which involve a balanced exploitation and use of food resources within an area and which discourage any change neolithic revolution: a phrase coined by V. Gordon Childe in order to highlight the great significance of the changes ushered in by the neolithic age neolithic: food-producing stone age cultures, marked by ground and polished stone tools New Archaeology: a trend that emerged in archaeology in the 1960s; represented by the processual school nibbana: a term used often in the Buddhist tradition for liberation from the cycle of birth and death Nitishastra: Sanskrit works on statecraft niyoga: levirate; the ancient custom of a widow cohabiting with her brother-in-law or another man in order to produce sons Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP or NBPW): a distinctive type of fine pottery with a glossy surface, made and used between c. 700 and 200 BCE nuclear zones: areas of early plant domestication, which lay within the natural habitat zones of those specific plant types numismatics: the study of coins Nyaya: a philosophical school concerned primarily with logic and epistemology Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP): a protohistoric pottery type found at several sites in the doab orthostats: vertical slabs in a megalithic chamber tomb Painted Grey Ware (PGW): a distinctive type of fine, grey pottery with designs painted on in black, made and used in parts of north India between c. 1000 and 500 BCE 647 648 Glossary palaeo-anthropologists: scholars who study the biological and cultural evolution of early humans palaeo-botanical studies: the analysis of ancient pollen and other minute plant remains, seeds, charcoal, sediments, and geological strata palaeo-channel: an old course of a river palaeolithic: the earliest and longest part of the stone age, corresponding with the Pleistocene geological era palaeo-magnetic method: a dating method used in archaeology palaeontology: the study of the remains of dead organisms across enormous spans of time palaeo-pathology: the study of disease through an analysis of ancient bone remains Pali: an ancient language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages; the language of the canon of the Theravada school palynology: the analysis of pollen and spores paramitas: perfections whose attainment led to the bodhisattva path; a Mahayana idea paribbajaka: Pali, literally, ‘wanderer’, renunciant pariharas: exemptions and privileges granted to donees in royal land grants parinibbana: the passing away of the Buddha patichcha-samuppada: Pali, the law of dependent origination; a part of the Buddha’s teaching patriarchy: a social system in which males (usually the eldest of them) exercise dominant power and authority within the family patrilineal/agnatic system: a unilineal kinship system which recognizes descent relationships through the father pebble tools: tools made on pebbles, in which only the working edge is flaked Periyapuranam: A 12th century work containing hagiographies of the Nayanmar saints petroglyph: created when some substance of a rock surface is removed through engraving, bruising, hammering, chiselling, or scooping pit circle: a type of megalithic burial, marked by a circle of large stones plant domestication: the process of selective breeding of plants, which involves removing them from their natural habitat and growing them under artificial conditions under human control for purposes of human gain plate tectonics: the movement of massive tectonic plates embedded within the earth Pleistocene: the sixth epoch of the Cenozoic age; began about 1.6 mya polyandry: a system in which a woman can have several husbands polygamy: a system in which one person can have more than one spouse at the same time polygyny: a system in which a man can have several wives polytheism: a belief in many gods positive feedback food procurement systems: food procurement systems where the productivity of resources increases as a result of human interference and exploitation post-excarnate burial: the practice where the bones of a dead person are collected and buried after the body is de-fleshed, for instance, by exposing it to the elements post-processualism: a school of archaeology that challenged many of the assumptions, methods, and goals of processualism, and had a more complex and nuanced understanding of material culture Prakrit: an ancient language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages, with various dialects such as Maharashtri, Shauraseni, and Magadhi pramanas: grounds of knowledge prashasti: panegyric pravara: the names of one, two, three, or five supposed ancestral rishis, connected with the gotra system of the Brahmanas prehistory: the past before the advent of writing; the stone age prestations: obligatory exchanges between groups of people, involving material as well as non-material items primary burials: burials in which the body was directly buried in the ground Primary/Palaeozoic era: the first of the four geological eras pristine state: a state which emerges from indigenous stimuli, usually with no pre-existing models processualism/processual archaeology: a school of archaeology which tried to understand cultures and cultural processes holistically and emphasized the importance of explanation, generalization, and theory-building protohistory: a term used in different senses; a segment of the past that is transitional between prehistory and history puram: war poems of the Sangam corpus Purva Mimamsa: a school of Vedic exegesis Quaternary: the fourth of the four geological eras rouletted ware: a pottery with a smooth surface and usually a metallic lustre, with concentric bands of rouletted designs, found especially in eastern and south-eastern India; once thought to be a foreign ware, now considered locally produced rusticated ware: pottery whose surface is roughened with a thick slurry of clay sabha: a tribal assembly mentioned in Vedic texts; the assembly of a Brahmana village in early medieval South India salvage archaeology: identifying endangered sites and saving them from destruction samana: a Pali word (Sanskrit shramana); literally, ‘one who strives’, a renunciant samanta: subordinate ruler; feudatory Samhita: a collection of hymns, associated with the Vedas Samkhya: a very ancient philosophical school which views the world as consisting of two fundamental categories of purusha (the spiritual principle) and prakriti (matter or nature) samskaras: literally ‘preparation’, ‘arrangement’; rituals marking important life stages sandhara: a temple style with an enclosed passage for circumambulation Sangam literature: texts in old Tamil, comprising the earliest parts of the Ettutokai, Pattuppattu, and Tolkappiyam sangha: a word with many different meanings including oligarchy, the Buddhist monastic order, and the Jaina monastic order sannyasa: the stage of complete renunciation in the ashrama scheme Sanskritization: an idea developed by the sociologist M. N. Srinivas, referring to a tendency of lower castes to imitate and adopt norms and practices of the upper castes in order to improve their ranking in the caste hierarchy sapindas: people who are held to be related to each other, an important category in Dharmashastra discussions on rules of marriage, inheritance, and rules of purity and impurity to be observed among relatives when a person died saptanga rajya: literally ‘the seven-limbed state’, the Arthashastra concept of the state as consisting of seven elements sarcophagus burial: a burial in which the funerary remains are placed in a terracotta trough Glossary script: writing; a system of visual communication using signs or symbols associated with specific meanings or sounds, written on some surface secondary burials: the practice of removing the remains of a corpse from one grave after some time and re-burying them in another grave secondary state: a state which has the model of an already-existing state before it, and which emerges as a result of interaction with this already-existing (‘pristine’) state Secondary/Mesozoic: the second of the four geological eras segmentary state: a state marked by the segmentation of power; originally put forward by Southall with reference to the African Alur tribe, subsequently applied by Stein to the states of early medieval South India. setthi: Pali (Sanskrit sreshthin); a high-level businessman associated with trade and money-lending shakha: a recension of a Veda Shivaism (Shaivism): the worship of Shiva as a supreme god Shudra: the fourth varna, which was supposed to serve the upper three varnas shruti: literally ‘that which has been heard’, the Veda Shvetambara: literally ‘white-clad’, a Jaina sect Siddhamatrika: an ancient script, known from the 6th century CE; also known as Kutila site: a place where there are artefacts or any material remains of past human activity slip: a coating on pottery smriti: literally ‘remembered texts’; a category of Sanskrit texts that includes the Vedangas, Puranas, epics, Dharmashastras, and Nitishastra species/specie: organisms that are similar in physical structure and behaviour, and which inter-breed with each other, or could do so if they had access to each other state society: a society which is stratified and whose polity is marked by the existence of a state stratigraphic context: the precise archaeological level at which an object is found stri-dhana: ‘women’s wealth’; various types of moveable property given to a woman on various occasions during her life-time, passed on from mother to daughter syadavada: literally ‘doctrine of maybe’; the Jaina doctrine of the partial nature of all statements about reality Tamil–Brahmi: an ancient script of South India, consisting of an adaptation of the Brahmi script in order to write the Tamil language taniyur: a special status given to certain brahmadeyas in early medieval South India, making them independent of the nadu wherein they were located terra sigilatta: moulded, decorated wares as well as undecorated, wheel-made ones made in Italy or imitations thereof; earlier referred to as Arretine ware Tertiary: the third of the four geological eras Tevaram: a collection of hymns, part of the canon of South Indian Shaiva bhakti thermoluminescence: a scientific method used in archaeology to date inorganic material that has been heated rapidly, e.g., pottery Tipitaka: Pali, literally ‘the three baskets’ or ‘three collections’, Buddhist canonical texts; the Pali Tipitaka is the canon of the Theravada school tirthankara: literally, ‘ford builder’; a Jaina saint Tirumurai: the canon of South Indian Shaiva bhakti Tiruttondar-Tiruvantai: a work by Nambi Andar Nambi, which gives a short hagiography of the Nayanmar saints Tiruttondar-Tokai: a work by Sundarar, which lists 62 Nayanmar saints torana: the gateway of a shrine transepts: vertical stone slabs that divide a megalithic chamber tomb into sections tribe: a term that is difficult to define precisely; comprises a number of related clans triratna: literally, ‘the three gems’; in Jainism, refers to the triple path of right faith, knowledge, and conduct unchambered tomb: a megalithic grave which does not have a chamber unilineal kinship systems: kinship systems which recognize descent relationships through either the father or the mother Upanishads: philosophical texts that are part of the Vedic corpus upasaka: a male lay follower of the Buddha’s teaching upasika: a female lay follower of the Buddha’s teaching upper palaeolithic: the latest part of the palaeolithic age, ranging between about 40,000 to 10,000 ya Uttara Mimamsa: also known as Vedanta; a philosophical school that emphasized the path of knowledge as opposed to that of works or sacrifice ur: a non-brahmadeya village of South India; the corporate assembly of such a village Uttarapatha: the major trans-regional trade route of northern India Vaisheshika: a philosophical school of pluralistic realism Vaishya: the varna associated with agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade vanaprastha: the stage of partial renunciation in the ashrama scheme varaha: the boar incarnation of the god Vishnu varna: literally ‘colour’; the concept of four hereditary classes—Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra varna-samkara: the mixture of varnas due to inter-varna unions vassavasa: the monsoon retreat of Buddhist monks Vatteluttu: An ancient South Indian script used for writing Tamil Vedanga: literally ‘limbs of the Veda’, auxiliary texts associated with the Vedas Vedas: four ancient Sanskrit texts, namely the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda velir: chieftains of South India vellala/vellalar: cultivating groups of South India vellanvagai: non-brahmadeya villages of early medieval South India; same as ur vendar: the three ‘crowned kings’ of early historical South India, i.e., the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas Vesara: a style of temple architecture which has a blend of elements associated with the Nagara and Dravida styles; also referred to as Karnata-Dravida vihara: a Buddhist monastery vimana: the sanctum of a temple and its superstructure viragal: the word for a ‘hero stone’ in the Tamil Nadu area Vishnuism (Vaishnavism): the worship of Vishnu as a supreme god yajamana: the person for whom the yajna (sacrifice) is performed and who bears its expenses yajna: sacrifice yakshas: deities associated with water, fertility, trees, forests, and the wilderness yakshis: female deities associated with fertility, consorts of yakshas yavana: Greeks, foreigners from the West Yoga: a philosophical school which aimed at focusing the mind to achieve complete tranquility and control Yogachara: a major Mahayana school which attached great importance to meditation as a means of attaining the highest goal yupa: sacrificial post 649 Maps Ganges B A Y O F B E N G A L l ".. tJ SRI LANKA Map 2 Archaeological Sites Relating to Pre-history and Proto-history Ox... :; 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