Human Resource Development PDF

WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:46 Page 171 A Guide to The Human Resource Body of KnowledgeTM (HRBoKTM), First Edition. Sandra M. Reed.  2017 by Human Resources Certiﬁcation Institute, Inc. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4 Human Resource Development The Deliberately Developmental Organization A New Paradigm for Twenty-First-Century Greatness Andy Fleming HR professionals would do well to look beyond twentieth-century models for guidance in building great organizations for this century and the next. My purpose here is to brieﬂy consider a widely accepted set of ideas related to people development and to raise two questions: Given the need for an everexpanding set of capabilities to meet the stream of challenges organizations face today and will encounter tomorrow, how suitable is the twentieth-century model for organizations that aspire to greatness? Is there a new conceptual frame available to HR professionals and leaders in general that can better serve their organizations and people going forward? The Twentieth-Century Talent Management Playbook When it comes to growing people in their organizations, most human resources professionals today follow a playbook that we can trace back at least as far as the early 1980s to places like General Electric (GE) under the direction of famed CEO Jack Welch. The basic idea: identify and label a small percentage of your workforce as “high potential” and create special workshops and initiatives, usually including (continued ) 171 WEBC04 04/02/2017 172 4:58:46 Page 172 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of KnowledgeTM (continued ) some form of executive coaching, to accelerate the development of your “hi-po’s” and perhaps other key leaders as well. What are the problems with the core elements of this playbook? First, they provide people punctuated inputs, delivered from time to time rather than continuously. By themselves they may not occur often or intensely enough. Given how daunting the project is to help people grow in fundamental ways, the application of the intervention may be too thin. Second, they constitute something extra—something beyond and outside the normal ﬂow of work, an approach that raises the vexing problems of transfer and cost. Even if these activities support powerful learning in a context outside work, how do you ensure that employees transfer their new knowledge to the stubbornly durable context of business as usual? And how do you sustain the double costs of external inputs and employees’ time away from the job? Third, these types of programs are provided for only a few, generally 5 to 10 percent of employees, even though the volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambig uous (VUCA) world impacts work and workers at all levels of organizations. How does an organization improve continuously and sometimes reinvent itself without helping everyone grow? What’s the impact of writing off the potential of 90 to 95 percent of your workers? Finally, and above all, notice that the twentieth-century playbook makes the individual, and not the organization, the point of dynamic entry. If the organization wants to signiﬁcantly impact people’s capabilities, it should apparently ﬁnd something new, outside the organization itself, some additive: give them a coach, a program, a course. The organization itself does not change. We might soup up the fuel through these additives, but the engine remains what it has always been. The Deliberately Developmental Organization Is there an alternative to this twentieth-century paradigm for growing people at work? Imagine so valuing the importance of developing people’s capabilities that you design a culture that itself immersively sweeps every member of the organi zation into an ongoing developmental journey in the course of working every day. Imagine making the organization itself—and not separate, extra beneﬁts—the incubator of capability. Imagine hardwiring development into your bottom line so that, along with asking whether your culture is fostering the other elements of business success (such as proﬁtability or the consistent quality of your offering), you ask—demand—that your culture as a whole, visibly and in the regular, daily operations of the company, be a continuous force on behalf of people over coming their limitations and blind spots and improving their mastery of increas ingly challenging work. Imagine ﬁnding yourself in a trustworthy environment, one that tolerates— even prefers—making everyone’s weaknesses public—from the C-suite to the front lines—so that you and your colleagues can support each other in the process of overcoming those weaknesses. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:46 Page 173 Human Resource Development 173 Table 4.1 Growing People at Work: Two Paradigms Who How When Twentieth Century Twenty-First Century “High potentials” and key leaders Off-site workshops and executive coaching Special times Everyone Together at work Every day You’re imagining an organization that, through its culture, is an incubator or accelerator of people’s growth. In short, you’re imagining a deliberately devel opmental organization (DDO). It is beyond the scope of this article to describe the inner workings of such organizations, but they do exist in more than your or my imagination. And the results for the three DDOs that we discovered and researched for our 2016 book An Everyone Culture: Becoming a Deliberately Developmental Organization (recently named “Best Management and Workplace Culture Book of 2016” by 800-CEO READ) speak for themselves. Over the past ﬁve years, Next Jump, an e-commerce company based in New York, cut turnover within its largely Millennial workforce from the industry average of 40 percent to single digits while regularly breaking company records for revenue, proﬁts, productivity, and growth rate. Decurion, a Los Angeles–based manager of movie theaters (as well as real estate and senior living facilities) averages the highest gross per screen in the industry. And Bridgewater Associates, a Connecticut-based global investment ﬁrm, manages the world’s largest and highest-performing hedge fund as measured over the past 20 years. Since researching and writing our book, we’ve observed and sometimes worked with a growing number of organizations—in professional services, man ufacturing, and high tech, from Atlanta to Silicon Valley to Australia and the Far East—that have also begun the journey toward the DDO idea themselves, perhaps attracted by the promise that organizations and all of their people can become the greatest resources for each other’s ﬂourishing. From aiming to manage the talent of a select few to deliberately growing and unleashing the full capacity of everyone, perhaps a twenty-ﬁrst-century playbook has already begun to emerge for HR professionals and other thoughtful organi zational leaders. Table 4.1 summarizes two paradigms for growing people at work. About the Author Andy Fleming is currently the CEO of Way to Grow Inc. and a contributing author for An Everyone Culture: Becoming a Deliberately Developmental Organization by Robert Kegan and Lisa Laskow Lahey (Harvard Business School Press, 2016). Portions of this article were adapted from that book. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:46 174 Page 174 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge Introduction What if you develop your people, and they leave? The better question is: What if you don’t develop your people, and they stay? Failing to address the changing needs of the company’s human resources will result in lackluster performance (individual and company) and the loss of talented workers. Similarly, companies that wish to remain competitive must engage in organizational development (OD) activities to respond to the changing landscape of their markets. Overreliance on the status quo leads to stagnation, which leads to decline. The functional area of human resource develop ment (HRD) addresses the HR competencies of people and talent management while employing OD interventions where appropriate. This includes application of learning concepts at both an individual level and an organizational level. Factors affecting the performance of these competencies include: Assessing the current and future skills needs of the organization, assessing the skill sets of the current workforce, and developing a plan to address the gaps Applying leadership and motivation theories to improve employee abilities, increase job satisfaction, and meet company goals Designing micro and macro interventions that address systemic conditions inﬂuencing organizational effectiveness Developing training and knowledge management programs that support com pany short- and long-term strategies Designing a talent management system that recognizes, rewards, and manages employee performance while addressing individual development needs and goals Integrating repatriation programs into HRD activities to address the needs of expatriates Managing knowledge programs and employees to retain key talent and mini mize the impact of turnover HRD Human resource development The part of human resource management that deals with training employees and giving them the skills they need to do their jobs both now and in the future Talent Management An approach to attract, develop, and keep skilled employees The process of recruiting, integrating, and developing new workers, developing and keeping current workers, and attracting skilled workers WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:46 Page 175 Human Resource Development 175 Employee Training Training is an intervention strategy designed to impart knowledge, build skills, and change behavior. While not a ﬁx-all, training activities are often an effective way to accomplish several different business objectives. Training aligned with business strategies involves setting objectives that map directly to organizational goals. For example, a company with rapid growth plans may provide training for its salespeople on how to up-sell products to the existing customers. In other cases, a company may plan to offer new products or services, requiring training for employees on new or updated features and beneﬁts. Some companies choose to compete through their training efforts, offering such to clients and customers and making it a revenue source that provides a regular return on investment (ROI). Operationally, training is useful to help new hires learn their jobs. It is also an effective response plan for employees who are struggling in their duties and have performance gaps. For customers and third-party distributors, many organizations are providing videos on how to use their products. Needless to say, any training initiative must spring from a very clear set of deﬁned objectives. Often, this is achieved by starting with employee needs assessments. Needs Assessments While needs analyses are relevant in every aspect of human resource management, in this functional area this activity is related to identifying and establishing priorities in human resource development activities. Development concepts apply to both individuals and organizations. For this reason, a needs assessment may be focused on the needs of the employees, the needs of a job, or the needs of the business. Employee needs These type of assessments focus on the individual training needs for employees related to the work they are doing in their current positions. Development needs may also be assessed to identify skills or abilities that the employee will have to possess to grow into future positions. Companies may also assess employee needs when deciding whom to select for training. Methods to gather information about employee needs include surveys, face-to-face interviews, formal tests, job records, and simple observation of employee performance. Job needs In instructional design, a task analysis is conducted to create training objectives by comparing the needs of the job with the abilities of the employees. Depending on the ﬁndings, training may seek to impart procedural directions, such as writing and training standard operating procedures (SOPs). Other times the training objectives may focus on organizational structures through job design activities. Tools WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:46 176 Page 176 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge used for assessing job needs include focus and discussion groups, performance against benchmarks, on-the-job observation, and work instruction reviews. Company needs Performance targets, dashboards, and scorecards help employers identify what is working and what is not working. Assessments of organizational training and development needs will attempt to target any deﬁciencies and build on strengths while shaping future needs at a strategic level; identifying the knowledge, skills, and abilities needed for meeting future needs will drive training and development plans. An HR audit may be used to take a macro look of the needs of the entire workforce. Other measures such as turnover and retention analysis and studies of employee absenteeism rates help employers identify where HR interventions may be appropriate. Needs Analysis Assessment to determine next steps Assessing the present situation to determine the steps necessary to reach a desired future goal Development Event, happening, occurrence Something that happens or has happened, or the act of making or improving something HR Audit Assessment of an organization’s human resources An evaluation of the strengths, weaknesses, and development needs of human resources required for organizational performance Absenteeism Not coming to work Not coming to work because of illness or personal problems. Many companies calculate the rate of absenteeism of their employees, which is the average number of days they do not come to work. At the core of needs assessment are methodologies used to collect and interpret data so that a course of action, called interventions, may be developed. In a training needs assessment, an employer may wish to work backward by ﬁrst identifying the desired skills, behaviors, or objectives of training, and then WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:46 Page 177 Human Resource Development 177 designing a program around those needs. A gap analysis is the tool of choice for HR in accomplishing these objectives. Measuring employee, job, or organizational performance against those desired objectives follows next. The third step involves creating an intervention strategy, which addresses the gap between current and future states. This third step is where exploring solutions and calculating costs are very important tasks. From these ﬁrst three steps of a needs analysis, HR should be prepared to recommend a course of action for approval, implement the interven tion, and establish tools to measure program success. Needs That Motivate There are many theories on how employees can be motivated to perform at their optimum levels; these theories are covered in greater detail shortly. At the heart of many motivational theories is the ability to truly understand employee and company needs. Needs as a training benchmark also increase employee engagement in training outcomes. Compare this to a salesperson pitching a product to you. Successful salespeople identify ﬁrst what you are looking for, and then seek solutions that meet your needs. When this occurs, you feel satisﬁed and happy with the exchange. When it doesn’t occur, you may feel that the salesperson completely ignored your needs. In some cases, such as compliance training, this approach isn’t possible. But any sort of development activity should seek to build outcomes that are customized solutions for employee success. Instructional design ers know that the “What’s in it for me?” question must be answered for training to have impact. Other factors such as individual internal drivers, external conditions, and the type and quality of work being performed should also be taken into consideration when seeking to inﬂuence the employee performance through training and devel opment activities. Similarly to hiring for ﬁt—where HR attempts to match the characteristics of a person to the characteristics of the job—leaders must make the effort to tap into the internal and external needs of their employees when designing HRD programs. One of these things is not like the other: A patient goes to his eye doctor complaining that he can’t see. The eye doctor takes off his own glasses and hands them to the patient, saying, “There, that should be better.” This, of course, is ineffective, simply because the need of the patient is not identical to the need of the doctor. The employment relationship is similar: HR leaders must understand the unique needs of both the employee and the company, and then tailor development activities toward maximizing employee or organizational performance. In some cases, an assessment may discover that training is not the proper intervention strategy. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:46 178 Page 178 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge Employee Engagement Level of satisfaction with work A measurement of employees’ involvement, satisfaction, happiness, and loyalty with their employment (how hard they work and how long they stay with their organization) HRD takes into account all of the aforementioned, and then some. Human resource professionals (HRPs) must be able to apply insights from information and conduct activities that develop/select and implement employee training programs. We start from the top by looking at the unique needs of company leaders. Leadership Development Leadership is a discipline in which managers must inﬂuence and direct the efforts of others in order to get things done. Leadership is a people-relationship activity in that it requires followers in order to achieve outcomes. In order to gather followers, one must understand what people need, share the vision, take personal responsi bility for outcomes, and, most important, be able to lead change efforts. Leadership A management ability The ability to inﬂuence other people or groups to achieve a goal Leadership Theories Whether leaders are born or made has been the subject of psychology and the social sciences for hundreds of years. In this context, a few of the better-known theories about what makes great leaders tick are the following: Great man The great man theory of leadership is built upon the belief that there is a biological predisposition to leaders: leaders are born, not made. Embedded in literature and history as traditionally male heroes, the great man theory has been applied to the likes of Abraham Lincoln and Julius Caesar. This type of leadership theory in general is not widely accepted any longer due in large part to the evolution of research on the subject. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:46 Page 179 Human Resource Development 179 Trait-based Trait-based theories of leadership sought to identify a certain set of characteristics that leaders had in common. Searching for correlations between leadership ability and traits such as intelligence, optimism, or self-conﬁdence, these theories eventually concluded that there was not a single set of predictable characteristics to apply to the identiﬁcation of leaders. Behavior-based Emerging from the early attempts at leadership trait identiﬁcation came the behavior-based theories. In these theories researchers began to look at what leaders do as opposed to who they are. These theories suggest that anyone can be a leader if they simply adopt certain behaviors. Contingency/situational Contingent means dependent on, so in the case of contingency theories, a leader’s behavior is driven by situational variables. These theories emphasize that there is no one trait or set of behaviors that will deﬁne leadership effectiveness, but rather that effective leaders learn to adapt their responses to what is necessary at the time. The Leadership Grid Blake and Mouton of the University of Texas provided leadership theories with a measurement tool called the Leadership Grid. It is built on two criteria: the concern for people and the concern for production (results). The grid is built as a 9×9 matrix with 1 indicating low concern and 9 reﬂecting high concern. There are ﬁve possible combination scores using the grid: 1/1—low concern for production, low concern for people 1/9—low concern for production, high concern for people 5/5—moderate concern for production, moderate concern for people 9/1—high concern for production, low concern for people 9/9—high concern for production, high concern for people HR can plot managers and create development strategies based on their strengths and weaknesses, and design training and development plans in align ment with company needs. Take a look at Figure 4.1 for a sample. Leadership Styles Different types of organizations require different types of managers. With the evolution from production-based manufacturing to more relationship-driven ser vices, there is a place for every leadership style. However, an improper ﬁt can create challenges that ultimately affect outcomes, such as employee job satisfaction, productivity, quality, and even a hostile work environment. For this reason, HR must understand the company culture, the nature of the work, and the leadership WEBC04 04/02/2017 180 4:58:47 Page 180 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge Figure 4.1 Mapping Board for Blake and Mouton’s Leadership Grid Source: Adapted from Robert Blake and Jane Mouton, “The Managerial Grid, 1964,” in S. Crainer (Ed.), The Ultimate Business Library (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2003). styles of individual managers. While company culture and job context are covered in other chapters, leadership styles include: Authoritarian Authoritarian leaders are effective in situations in which there is a high level of insecurity or critical decisions that must be made and followed quickly. If productivity goals are the highest priority, an authoritarian leader may be the best solution. Laissez-faire The term laissez-faire roughly translates from French to English as “let do.” These types of leaders let their people operate in large part without them. This leadership style is effective in environments where the employees are highly skilled, motivated, or self-directed. Its success is highly dependent on a job design that allows for a great degree of autonomy. Transactional This leadership style focuses on getting the job done using “this for that” or “do this to avoid that” exchange techniques. Transactional leaders look for WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:47 Page 181 Human Resource Development 181 what is not getting done, and engage in reward and punishment activities to achieve outcomes. Transformational These types of leaders are more focused on the people relation ships. Effectiveness of these leaders is often built upon a shared vision, with the manager facilitating and leading the effort necessary to accomplish the objectives. Leadership development and coaching should be aligned to elements of the business strategy, including the mission, vision, and values. This helps HR put the right leaders in the right roles for maximum effectiveness. Factors that inﬂuence both motivation and leadership are discussed next. Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness (GLOBE) It’s interesting to note that as globalization of the workforce has evolved, the Western leadership models just discussed may not be as relevant. The GLOBE study on leadership was aimed at identifying global leadership characteristics to help multinational enterprises (MNEs) manage across cultures. The original 2004 study used more than 200 researchers across 62 countries; in 2014, 70 researchers collected data from a variety of industries in 24 countries. Consistent to both ﬁndings were the impact a society’s culture has on the effectiveness of leaders, and the need for senior leadership styles to match the expectations of the cultures within which they perform. Additionally, the transformational leadership style works across cultures, with the most important characteristics being visionary and inspirational leadership, acting with integrity, and a strong performance orientation. The GLOBE research supported the hypothesis that a better ﬁt of the CEO to societal expect ations correlated with stronger ﬁrm performance. These ﬁndings are very instructive for international HR management practition ers. They show that the need to conduct leadership assessments along with coaching leaders on assignment in a different culture is imperative for successful organizational outcomes. Additionally, being selected for an international assignment is attractive as a development opportunity for many employees. Building development criteria for a competent global HR professional should include a 50,000-foot view of global market trends and a clear idea of the business strategy for the relevant assignment location. On a more operational and individual level, transnational competencies should include the ability to effectively interact with a diverse group of people, and having a natural curiosity about life and business in general. Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivators Recall the concepts in Chapter 2 related to strategic planning. One of the activities supported by HR is the analysis of internal and external forces that act upon an WEBC04 04/02/2017 182 4:58:47 Page 182 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge organization, prompting movement. So it is also with individual behavior. Forces from within, also called intrinsic motivators, will cause a person to move in a certain direction. Extrinsic forces may also apply performance pressure to an employee, driving actions. Intrinsic rewards come from high levels of job satisfaction, empowerment, and a sense of purpose that is the result of the work the employee is accomplishing. Extrinsic motivators are served by salary bumps and titles. Both are served well when a manager provides instant awards and sincere performance feedback. Leadership Development Activities that enhance leadership performance Investment in programs to help current leaders become more effective and to build future leaders Intrinsic Rewards Nonmaterial satisfaction Nonmaterial motivation that comes from personal satisfaction (for example, job status, job satisfaction, or human interest) Extrinsic Rewards Measurable recognition Work or actions where the motivating factors are material and are measured through monetary beneﬁts, grades, prizes, and praise Empowerment Authorized to make decisions The ability for employees to manage their work, share information, and make decisions without close supervision Instant Awards Immediate employee recognition Rewards for employees that are provided immediately after the desired behavior is produced WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:47 Page 183 Human Resource Development 183 Locus of Control The term locus means point or location. People’s locus of control is the point or location of their beliefs about how well they can control what happens to them. Individuals with an internal or high locus of control believe that their actions determine what happens to them—they are large and in charge. Employees and managers with a low or external locus of control believe that what happens to them is the result of luck, chance, or other outside factors—they believe they have very little effect on the world around them. Attitudes and Leadership/Motivation Before we get to the next section’s review of the most widely accepted theories of motivation, one theory belongs in this leadership section. Developed by Douglas McGregor, Theory X and Theory Y explain the differences in leadership beliefs about employees. Theory X managers believe that as a general rule employees are lazy and unmotivated and do not like to work. The only meaningful motivation techniques are fear, direction, and punishment. Theory X managers tend to be more task-oriented than people-oriented. Theory Y managers are the exact opposite. They expect employees to fundamentally want to do their best, and that they—the managers—really need to give them a reason to care about what they do. Theory Y managers are more likely to be people-centered. It may be appropriate to mention here that HR has a responsibility to match leaders to the right role within the organization. Factors such as personality, attitude, and task versus people orientation are all to be considered when hiring, retaining, and coaching leaders. An operational role may be better suited for individuals who are highly task-oriented and where direct control over processes or people is necessary to get the job done. Collaborative roles are better suited to leaders who must rely on others, such as in a matrix organizational structure described in the Business Management and Strat egy chapter. Still others may excel in leadership roles in which advisory responsibilities are most important, such as human resource managers. In this role, people skills and the ability to inﬂuence outcomes through knowledge, integrity, and excellence are the characteristics of successful leadership. Emerging theories such as what is described in Rath and Conchie’s book Strengths Based Leadership build on the idea that effective leaders focus on strengths—their own and their employees’. By focusing on strengths, work can be framed around what employees do best, rather than trying to train, coach, or discipline an employee to use less developed skills (continued ) WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:47 184 Page 184 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge (continued ) or aptitudes. In many cases, leadership coaching will be required to help supervisors transition from the more traditional, authoritarian methods of managing employee performance to the twenty-ﬁrst century’s strengthsbased, employee-owned skill and career development practices of today’s workplace. Leadership Coaching HR is responsible to provide coaching to managers and executives on how to manage their people resources using leadership concepts and applications. Executive coaching is a formal system to counsel managers and new supervisors regarding the skills necessary to perform well. Different from employee coach ing, management coaches are typically sourced from outside the company. Generally beginning with a leadership assessment (often including a 360-degree assessment), a coaching program seeks to build outcomes that meet the unique needs of those with high degrees of responsibilities. Topics such as strategic thinking, change leadership, leadership style, interpersonal skills, and working through others for results are common topics for executive coaching sessions. Motivation theories and leadership theories are closely linked, as getting employees to successfully perform and follow the leader requires advanced skills that may be learned. In order for HR practitioners to help develop managers, they must understand and be able to apply the different theories of leadership to development efforts. In addition, HR may need to teach managers about these theories to help them begin to understand the people they are responsible for supervising. For this reason we explore theories of motivation next. Coaching Guiding, giving information, or training A method of developing speciﬁc skills in which a coach gives information and objective feedback to a person or group Theories of Motivation Understanding how adults are motivated to perform is critical information for leaders seeking to accomplish work through others. Traditional methods of WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:47 Page 185 Human Resource Development 185 authoritarian leadership are no longer relevant in many organizational designs. Companies of today have a highly diverse workforce with motivating needs varying from money (see the Compensation and Beneﬁts chapter) to recognition, career opportunities, development (Human Resource Development), interesting work (Workforce Planning and Employment), personal risk factors (Risk Management), and the psychological inﬂuence of personality characteristics. A one-size-ﬁts-all approach to motivating employees simply does not work. This section introduces fundamental principles of motivation techniques designed to inﬂuence supervisor success, employee productivity, and overall job satisfaction. Motivation Inspiration for action Reasons or inﬂuences that lead to speciﬁc desired behavior such as commitment to a job or continuing efforts to achieve a goal Scientiﬁc Management—Frederick Taylor To the sciences we go! In this theory, Taylor believed that people could be managed by using principles of engineering such as work design. Standardizing and breaking jobs down into their simplest forms for completion by the human machine could drive productivity. Building out clear work instructions and training employees could reduce the margin of error. Many also consider Taylor’s work as the origin of employee meal and rest breaks. During Taylor’s observations of his workers, he realized that if given the opportunity to physically rest, the employees came back and were more productive than before. Other observations led to an understanding that an employee’s working condi tions could be motivators. This meant that it was in the employer’s best interest to provide things like safety, lighting, and the availability of proper tools and equipment. See the feature to review an interesting social experiment that took place at the Chicago plant of Hawthorne Works that expanded upon Taylor’s theories. THE HAWTHORNE EFFECT Between 1924 and 1932, the social scientist Elton Mayo conducted a series of experiments in which employee working conditions were manipulated. The goal was to put Frederick Taylor’s theories on scientiﬁc management to work. What Mayo found was that, indeed, when better lighting was installed, employee productivity improved. However, when the experiment ended, so also did the increased productivity, even though the better conditions remained. This was later dubbed the Hawthorne Effect when researchers realized that it was the effect of (continued ) WEBC04 04/02/2017 186 4:58:47 Page 186 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge (continued ) management paying attention to employees and the awareness of the employees that they were being studied that drove the behaviors. This is relevant in coaching managers on how to motivate workers by giving them time and attention, and also in the context of job analysis and design methods discussed in the Workforce Planning and Employment chapter. Employees who know they are being observed will modify their behaviors. Job Characteristics Model—Hackman and Oldman In 1975, Hackman and Oldman built upon prior work that described the inﬂuence of the job on employee levels of productivity. These researchers found that how the work is organized and the dimensions of job characteristics had a direct inﬂuence on employee performance. The characteristics included: Task identity Employees who know the whole as opposed to operating in a vacuum of parts seem to experience higher levels of job satisfaction. It offers a sense of achievement when people have the opportunity to complete a task from start to ﬁnish and have a line of sight to how they contribute to the bigger picture. Task signiﬁcance Employees who feel good about what they put in eight hours producing have a sense of contribution that can be a strong motivator of perform ance. The impact that work has on other people, such as that performed by nurses, nonproﬁt employees, and educators, can have a signiﬁcant impact on employee fulﬁllment. Skill variety The ability to use multiple skill sets in work contributes to a sense of jobs being meaningful and important. Note that these ﬁrst three skills all contribute to employees feeling they are engaged in meaningful work. These next two job characteristics give employees a sense of responsibility and ownership over the outcomes: Autonomy The extent to which employees are allowed to use independent judg ment gives them the sense that management trusts them and believes in their talent. Feedback Feedback gives employees the information they need to improve performance, or keep on doing what they are doing. Some employees and personality types require more feedback than others do. The job characteristics model states that employee productivity is a function of job design more than of internal or external motivators. This theory was supported by a 2012 U.S. Merit Systems Board study of federal employees. The study found that all ﬁve of Hackman and Oldman’s job characteristics directly inﬂuenced the motivation and productivity levels of federal workers. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:47 Page 187 Human Resource Development 187 Figure 4.2 Hackman and Oldman’s Job Characteristics Figure 4.2 describes in more detail the characteristics and the relationships between these ﬁve factors. Frederick Herzberg—Motivator Hygiene Theory Beginning with a 1950s study of jobs, this two-factor theory of motivation worked from the hypothesis that the causes of job satisfaction would be the opposite of the causes of job dissatisfaction. For example, if high-paying jobs are satisﬁers, then low-paying jobs must be dissatisﬁers. Herzberg’s studies disproved this hypothesis, ﬁnding that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposites and are not on a continuum; they are independent of one another. This means that remedying job dissatisﬁers will not lead to job satisfaction, and adding causes of job satisfaction will not eliminate dissatisfaction. Building upon the work of Taylor, Hackman, and Oldman, Herzberg found that motivators result from intrinsic factors such as recognition, achievement, and WEBC04 04/02/2017 188 4:58:48 Page 188 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge personal growth; hygiene factors result from extrinsic factors such as pay, beneﬁts, and work conditions. Here are some examples: Hygiene Factors (Job Dissatisﬁers) An employee is being harassed at work. An employee is being paid low wages. Even if the harassment stops and wages are increased, if the motivators are not present the employee will still not be satisﬁed. Motivators (Job Satisﬁers) An employee is recognized for her contributions and effort. An employee has access to professional development opportunities. If an employee loves the work but is treated poorly, the employee will not be satisﬁed. So, the ultimate goal in a work environment is to eliminate job dissatisfaction by removing hygiene factors and increasing job satisfaction by introducing motivators. B. F. Skinner—Operant Conditioning Skinner’s operant conditioning theory of motivation was centered on the idea that individual behavior can be shaped and anticipated through reward and punishment actions. This was based on his experiments in which he either created or reversed a behavior through scheduled interventions of reward (recognition, food, money) and punishment (removal of a desired condition, strong consequences). In the context of worker productivity, this means that an organization should seek to institute a program of response that goes beyond the basics of a paycheck and discipline. Regular feedback, either negative or positive, is one example. To help understand this concept, consider how you would behave in a public parking lot if the ticket kiosk failed to deliver the required parking permit—when you push the button for the stub, nothing happens. Because you have been conditioned to expect a certain reward for pushing the button, you push it again, perhaps harder this time. If that doesn’t work, you might pound on the button with increasing force. In other words, the absence of the expected reward initially causes an increase in the frequency and force of behavior, and no small amount of stress about what to do next. Skinner would suggest that in order to “reprogram” this behavior, the absence of the reward must be consistently delivered. In the work context of change and motivation, employees rarely change behavior on demand; they must instead be reconditioned to behave in a certain way through either reward, punishment, or the avoidance of punishment. Concepts to understand in operant conditioning include: WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 Page 189 Human Resource Development 189 Positive reinforcement An act by the employer in which rewards are used to inﬂuence employee behavior. An example would be pay-for-performance programs. Negative reinforcement An act by the employee in which he or she behaves in a certain way to avoid an unpleasant consequence. An example would be an employee showing up to work on time to avoid discipline. Punishment An employee in training receives a sharp reprimand for holding side conversations during the facilitator’s presentation. It’s important to understand that these early scientiﬁc theories of motivation and job design such as Taylor and Skinner were driven by research and observation of the prevalent industries of the times—manufacturing, production, and coal energy. Many of these jobs were easily organized into repetitive tasks with countable outputs. As the economy and industries have shifted and changed, the social sciences, industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology, and sciences related to orga nizational behavior have responded. Research related to employee needs such as managing expectations and change, the desire for a sense of belonging and meaningful work, and the need for personal growth are all areas that have proper scientiﬁc theories behind them. A few of these are explored next. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs The pyramid of needs represented by Abraham Maslow has its roots in humanistic psychological principles. Maslow’s hierarchy reﬂects that all human beings have needs, and suggests that certain needs must be met before other needs will be consciously or unconsciously considered. The base of the pyramid is physiological needs. This implies that people’s hunger or thirst needs must be satisﬁed before they will seek to satisfy the next level of need, which is safety. Safety needs include the need for shelter from both physical and emotional harm. From safety, the pyramid moves up into the social needs of belonging and acceptance by peers or managers. This is followed by the need to satisfy the esteem needs in which people wish to feel as though they are valued and respected. Finally, when other needs are satisﬁed, an employee may seek to satisfy the need for self-actualization, or a sense of purpose and fulﬁllment through their own actions and choices. David McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory McClelland’s theory of motivation centered on the premise that individuals are motivated by three characteristics: achievement, afﬁliation, and power. Figure 4.3 describes sample behavior of employees within each category. Note that some WEBC04 04/02/2017 190 4:58:48 Page 190 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge Figure 4.3 McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory employees may share characteristics of combined categories. For example, one employee may be highly achievement oriented but also enjoys the feedback and esteem of her peers. She would map more toward the right side of the achieve ment column, closest to the afﬁliation column. Similarly, an employee who demonstrates a strong need to be in charge but knows he must get work done through others may present to the left side of the power column, closest to afﬁliation. McClelland’s theory seems to be in direct contrast to Skinner’s in that McClel land believed individuals are motivated from within (intrinsic), whereas Skinner believed that employees are motivated by external factors (extrinsic). Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Vroom, a professor at Yale University, is credited with the development of the expectancy theory of motivation. His work is built upon the premise that employees choose to behave in a certain way, dependent upon their expectations. The level of effort (motivation) an employee will apply depends on the expected outcome and whether the employee believes the outputs are worth the inputs. The three terms used to explain his theory are: Expectancy People’s belief that if they work hard, their performance will be high. It is the degree of effort that drives the outcome. Instrumentality Performance is considered instrumental when it leads to a certain outcome; the performance is the instrument used to achieve an outcome. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 Page 191 Human Resource Development 191 Valence The term valence can be related to the meaning of the term value, in that employees perform well when they highly value an outcome, and perform less well when an outcome is less valued. Valence is different for every employee, as employees have different needs. PUTTING THE THEORIES TOGETHER IN THE WORKPLACE Most people are much too complex to assume that a single theory can explain their behavior. Let’s suggest that a sales employee who is paid on commission is asked to attend classroom training on harassment prevention. Normally, the employee enjoys the opportunity to engage with his coworkers as he is motivated by McClelland’s afﬁliation need to engage with others. While the training is on an interesting topic and is required by company policy, the employee also needs to be on the phone or out in the ﬁeld selling or he will not make the rent payment on his apartment. In this case, the employee’s security needs reﬂected on Maslow’s hierarchy will not allow him to be highly motivated to attend and participate in training. It may take an intervention from Skinner’s theories to either reward him for attending or discipline him for not showing up to actually drive his behavior to attend and, more important, have an attitude that allows him to learn from the training. Instructional Design A systems approach to training programs is at the core of instructional design theories. Designing effective training programs from the ground up can be daunting, especially if the needs are not clearly understood. Instructional design methods address all of the moving targets present in training programs: the needs of the people, the needs of the company, and the training sessions themselves. Put all together, formal methods and academic theories of program design, develop ment, delivery, and evaluation can be studied, all in the pursuit of a transfer of learning. Transfer of Learning Sharing knowledge and information from one person or place to another The continuous exchange of information, knowledge, and skills from one context to another The ADDIE Model The development of training programs is a critical skill set for all HR professionals, and it goes beyond simply conducting the training sessions. Instructional design models, such as ADDIE (analysis, design, development, implementation, and WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 192 Page 192 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge evaluation), are tools HR may use to guide design efforts. The stages of assessment, design, development, implementation, and evaluation are explored next. Analysis The needs analysis techniques reviewed in an earlier section—including a review of leadership skills to identify training and development needs—describe the knowl edge, tasks, and tools for this stage of the ADDIE model. The information gathered through careful data analysis gives HR the information necessary to begin designing an effective program that addresses root causes of employees’ and leaders’ behaviors. In some cases, an assessment of the potential trainees may uncover special participant needs. Language barriers requiring material translation, shift schedules needing accommodation, technical skills gaps that have to be addressed ﬁrst, and reading and writing levels all may be identiﬁed at this stage. The needs assessment is all about gathering and analyzing information through interviews, observations, documentation, and simply asking the employees what they need. An effective assessment may also discover that training is not the proper intervention technique. ADDIE Model A training design technique A process for designing training programs that has ﬁve steps: analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation Trainee A person learning skills for a certain job A person who is learning and practicing the necessary skills for a particular job Translation Interpreting text from one language to another Changing a message from one language to another while keeping the meaning Design Think of the design stage of a new home. The decision to start shopping for a new house is usually driven from need: the need for more bedrooms, the need to live in a WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 Page 193 Human Resource Development 193 safer area, or the need to be close to good schools. Once the decision to build a new home is made, an architect may be selected to draw up plans. These plans include the layout of the new home, the size of garage desired, and any specialized services that need to be subcontracted. Cost estimates are researched and compared with options submitted for ﬁnal consideration and approval. The design stage of ADDIE is a planning stage that builds out training objectives in direct relationship to the ﬁndings of the needs analysis. Once the training objectives are identiﬁed, delivery methods, target markets, vendor selection, and cost comparisons are made. HR may be asked to research the engagement of a professional instructional designer. HR may also need to research off-the-shelf products, or to tailor programs with a little bit of original material and a little bit of best practice sources. Licensing and issues of proprietary ownership must be evaluated and respected. The focus of any training program is on the transfer of training, so a wish list of job tasks or responsibilities, people skills, or abilities is created at this stage for mapping in the next stage: content development. Customized training is content that is built from scratch to address speciﬁc learning outcomes. Tailored training is existing or off-the-shelf content that is modiﬁed for a better ﬁt. Licensing Giving permission to use, produce, or sell A written contract in which the owner of a trademark or intellectual property gives rights to a licensee to use, produce, or sell a product or service Proprietary Relating to an owner or ownership Rights of property ownership relating to key information, materials, or methods developed by an organization Develop This is the phase in which curriculum is built and training materials such as manuals and facilitator’s guides begin to take shape. Off-the-shelf products are evaluated WEBC04 04/02/2017 194 4:58:48 Page 194 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge for objective fulﬁllment and degree to which the product can be customized. Time and other resource commitments are evaluated. Metrics, such as pretests and posttests, participant surveys, the use of control groups for results comparisons, and on-the-job results, are considered in the development of program deliverables. Using the house-building analogy, program delivery mechanisms are identiﬁed that will serve as conduits that carry the training material to the participants. There are several training methods to select from, and all have merit: Classroom-based In a more traditional method of delivering training, participants gather together outside of their department in a classroom. The room is set up with the relevant tools of the training trade: audiovisual equipment, whiteboard, easel, projector, and screen. Tables and chairs are organized to improve learning out comes. Classroom training is best for smaller groups made up of participants who all need the same training, such as harassment prevention training that is legally compliant with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and state laws. Self-paced programs You will learn in a few pages about how adults learn, and one element is that adults are generally self-directed. This is because their focus is problem centered as opposed to concept centered. Self-paced programs give participants a sense of control over when they complete the training. It allows their minds to focus on what is most important to them while taking in the whole content through to completion. Virtual classrooms Technology has greatly contributed to the rise and conve nience of virtual classroom environments. Ranging from databases housing information for access by employees as needed to highly interactive computer simulations, this type of training program delivery has received a lot of attention in recent years. A virtual classroom uses collaboration software to engage the instructor with students, and the students with other participants, often using distance learning techniques. Virtual classrooms are characterized by discussion boards, videos, simulation exercises, case studies, and PowerPoint slides. Syn chronous training occurs in real time with the instructor and participants all online at the same time. Asynchronous training is when the student and instructor are not in the virtual classroom at the same time, such as in a self-paced online program. Sometimes, these programs are accessed online, a form of e-learning without the need for additional software. Microlearning Characterized by short bursts of content delivery, often through the use of videos, microlearning seeks to narrowly target learning objectives for maximum effect. An advantage of building microlearning videos is that an online training library may be built for employees (or customers) to access at any time. Modifying training content is logistically easier as well, as a short, 3-minute video should be easier to reﬁne than a mixed-content 30-minute training session. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 Page 195 Human Resource Development 195 Training Method A way of helping people learn A way of communicating skills and knowledge (for example, classroom training, distance learning, online training, and on-the-job training) Distance Learning Remote teaching method A method of education that uses TV, audiotapes or videotapes, computers, and the Internet, instead of traditional classroom teaching where students are physically present with their teacher Synchronous Learning An online teaching method A type of e-learning in which participants interact without a time delay, which requires them to attend at speciﬁc times Asynchronous Learning An online teaching method A teaching method where the students and teachers are online at different times E-Learning Online training or education A method of education where students attend classes on a computer or on the Internet Blended programs In blended programs, a combination of methods may be used to deliver training. The beneﬁts of blended learning include reinforcement of the key concepts over time and in multiple modes using distributed training methods. Blended learning outcomes can be adapted for time, with part of the curriculum done digitally while the instructor is working with others, or prior to the classroom session. From a training evaluation perspective, training delivered at least partially online or via software allows for better data collection using both pretests and WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 196 Page 196 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge posttests that can be consistently delivered to all participants and compared over time. On-the-job training (OJT) Some training programs make the most sense to be conducted on the job. Training participants job shadow a worker who is performing the tasks needing to be learned. This can be particularly useful when standard procedures must be followed. Challenges to OJT include trainees learning poor habits from the trainer, so HR should be sure to follow up to evaluate the efﬁcacy of this training method. Blended Learning A mix of different types of learning A learning method that combines face-to-face teaching with online learning Distributed Training A method of instruction over time and distance A method of training that allows instructors, students, and content to be located in different places. This type of training can be used together with a traditional classroom, or it can be used to create virtual classrooms. On-the-Job Training (OJT) Receiving instruction while working Acquiring knowledge, practical skills, and competencies while engaged in daily work Job Shadowing Observing another person’s work practices Learning a new job by watching another employee work Implement It’s now time to build the house. This stage involves delivering the training that was developed in the previous step to the target audience identiﬁed during the planning stage. Activities involved at this stage may include preparing the trainer, preparing the learner, and preparing the selected environment. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 Page 197 Human Resource Development 197 Evaluate All HRPs tasked with training delivery and design should be familiar with standard evaluation methods referenced earlier, such as gathering employee feedback about the training, and using the design stage of ADDIE to bake in components that can be measured, such as pretests and posttests of training content. Other Instructional Design Models While ADDIE continues to be a reliable instructional design model, the multitude of variables associated with successful training design suggests that the one-size-ﬁts all assumptions of ADDIE may no longer be sufﬁcient. For this reason, project-based methods have emerged to address the ever-changing environments affected by factors such as e-learning, collaboration, and a global audience. In the article titled “Methodology Wars: ADDIE vs. SAM vs. AGILE,” the author describes the AGILE (align, get set, iterate and implement, leverage, and evaluate) model as one that focuses on “sprints,” where design teams collaborate to build silos of learning content that are completed prior to moving on to the next training module (Russell 2015). The approach is repeatedly applied to chunks of content as opposed to using it once to map out an entire learning system. The Successive Approximation Model (SAM), designed by Allen Interactions, was formed in response to the e-learning needs of clients and is based on repeated small learning steps. Working from the bookends of performance, SAM progresses through three phases: Phase 1 This is the information gathering stage where training or project needs are identiﬁed. Phase 2 In this stage, design participants engage in collective brainstorming to identify performance outcomes through project planning, design, prototyping, and review. Phase 3 In phase 3, content is designed, developed, and analyzed, with real-time changes made as needed. Many instructional designers are adapting their own design methods to incor porate elements of all three models for maximum effect. Learning The acquisition of knowledge or skills is the goal of any training program, and forms the basis for learning. This can be achieved through discussion and lectures such as WEBC04 04/02/2017 198 4:58:48 Page 198 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge in academic settings, or on the job through experience and practice. Regardless of how learning is done, there are a few basic concepts an HR practitioner must know and be able to perform on the job. These follow in the next sections. Learning Curves The purpose of all training sessions is for the participants to learn something: gain knowledge, master a skill, or heighten an ability. Each individual operates at a different learning pace. A learning curve is a graphical representation of the pace of learning. They include: Negatively accelerating Deﬁned by early performance improvement with a slow ing as time goes on. Positively accelerating Characterized by a slow rate of performance improvement at ﬁrst with increased performance improvement as the skill is practiced. S-shaped In an S-shaped learning curve, considered a blend of negative (decelerated) and positive (accelerated) curves, the rate of performance improvement starts out slowly, takes off as the skills are practiced, and then begins to decelerate over time. Plateau A plateau occurs when an individual starts out with a rapid acceleration of performance and then the rate ﬂattens out over time. Learning Pace How fast a person learns The time it takes for a person to understand and retain information Learning Curve The rate at which a person acquires new skills and knowledge The time it takes for a person to acquire new information and skills and to perform successfully Adult Learning and Learning Styles The science of how adults learn is called andragogy, whereas how children learn is called pedagogy. This is relevant because research has shown that there are signiﬁcant differences between how adults learn and how children learn. This means that the principles of education that may be effective for the under-18 set may not transfer well to adult learners. The major differences are built around WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 Page 199 Human Resource Development 199 research that shows that what adults are learning is both practical and skills oriented as opposed to the transfer of academic knowledge that is a typical objective for elementary, secondary, and high schools, as well as colleges. Surveys have also shown that most adult learners, when asked why they engage in educational activities, say they do so for job-related purposes. If you are tasked as an HR professional with the design or development of training, these principles suddenly become important. Malcolm Knowles delivered fundamental research that distin guishes between the characteristics of adult learning and the characteristics of adolescent learning. His ﬁndings concluded that: As a person ages, his or her self-concept moves from dependence and direction from others to independent, self-directed learners. Adults accumulate both work and life experience, which they call upon to use for learning. The readiness of adults to learn is closely related to the needs of their social role, as in the case of their role on the job. There is a shift from gathering knowledge from learning to apply at a future date to an immediacy of use based on practicality or need. Did you ever say to your parents, “I’m never going to use algebra in real life”? Adults orient toward learning focused on problem solving; adolescents are taught to orient toward general subject matter. Additionally, Knowles found that: Internal motivators are more powerful than external motivators. Adults want to know why they need to learn something. Now that you have reviewed why adults take on learning activities, what about how adults learn? Adult learning styles describe the biological factors that shape the ways people learn and how they process information. There are three widely accepted learning styles: 1. Auditory learners absorb and retain information through their sense of hear ing. They respond best to information that is presented through verbal discus sions or audio presentations such as recordings or narrated videos. Interestingly, auditory learners learn best when they hear material presented in their own voices. Auditory learners use more than just what is presented at face value. They are adept at interpreting verbal cues of tone, inﬂection, pitch, and speed. Facilitators may unwittingly transfer meaning to training sessions if they talk super fast (as though they just need to get it over with) or are ﬂat with their delivery (as if bored). Example: When trying to memorize a phone number, an auditory learner will repeat it out loud several times. WEBC04 04/02/2017 200 4:58:48 Page 200 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge 2. Visual learners need to use their eyes to absorb and retain data. They also pick up on nonverbal cues such as crossed arms, rigid posture, and facial expressions. If a new policy is rolled out accompanied by supervisor eye rolling, the policy is immediately undermined. Visual learners tend to draw, sort, and organize infor mation into graphs, charts, and Venn diagrams, looking for the relationships between ideas. Visual learners appreciate handouts, presentations, guides, and pictures. Example: When trying to memorize a phone number, visual learners will write it down or take a picture of it with their phones so they can see it in their mind’s eye when they try to remember it. 3. Kinesthetic/tactile learners, also known as hands-on learners, prefer to learn by touch. Trainers can spot tactile learners in the audience because their knees are jumping, their pencils are tapping, or they tend to get up and stand in the back of the room during training sessions. Practice sessions that engage the learner are best for these individuals. Example: When trying to memorize a phone number, these learners prefer to type it into their phone contacts, pushing the buttons as a means to store the information in their brains for future recall. These principles of adult learning are so signiﬁcant that they must be consid ered for all participants attending a training session. This may be very difﬁcult, particularly if HR is charged with designing training for a large group or doesn’t have the budget or time to inventory every single worker. The best solution in these cases is to develop training content that incorporates something for everyone—audio components, visual tools and graphs, and hands-on practice or activities—to ensure that no student is left behind. Techniques for Training and Instructional Methods Think about the best training you ever attended. What made it so? Was the instructor engaging and an expert in her ﬁeld? Were the materials and training content relevant to your job? Did the presentation and the group exercises capture your attention? The effectiveness of training may be compromised if the proper instructional method is not selected with the audience and materials in mind. The three main methods to choose from are: 1. Passive training methods include presentations, lectures, videos, or computeraided content that requires little or no audience interaction. It is incumbent upon the trainer to keep audience attention. Didactic methods focus on theories and information sharing. 2. Active training methods are a bit more lively, and generally are led by a facilitator as opposed to a subject matter expert. The facilitator will need to have presen tation and problem-solving skills, as well as familiarity with the training materials being used during the session. In this Socratic method of teaching, Q&A formats are popular, asking participants to use critical thinking skills to apply training WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:48 Page 201 Human Resource Development 201 content. Classroom exercises may be used, including role playing, case study analysis, and discussion questions. Simulation or vestibule training is also a form of active training in which participants learn in an environment similar to where they will be working. Picture an inventory clerk being taught how to enter purchase orders. If the clerk is asked to practice on the live system, the consequences would be of nightmarish proportion! It is better to have a simulated version of the inventory system in which the clerk may gain skills through practice. 3. Experiential training is led by a person with the knowledge, skills, and expertise to train the worker. It may include a form of demonstration in which the instructor shows a worker how to do a task and then allows her to practice on her own under the expert’s guidance. This type of training focuses on practicing a new skill using structured exercise, so it beneﬁts from delivery to smaller groups or one on one, depending on the need. Additionally, webinars attempt to blend components from the various training methods. Held online, a webinar features a live instructor or facilitator who uses a combination of presentation and Q&A to impart information. Technical difﬁculties can plague webinars, as can the absence of body language cues that all learning styles learn from. Without the need for direct eye contact or participant interaction, it is also very easy for trainees to stay muted during the session, losing focus and potentially missing key points to the training content. The location and method of delivery should be considered when designing the training to address costs, time frame, specialized equipment needs, and the target audience. Cultural factors also inﬂuence learning styles and expectations, on both a macro and an individual scale. Learners from different cultures have different expectations of training design and content. For example, Asian cultures view learning as a formal endeavor, expecting their teachers to be experts deserving of high levels of respect. Role playing and simulations may be more accepted in countries such as Switzerland and Canada, whereas didactic methods such as lectures and demon strations are preferred in Venezuela and Turkey (Tarique et al., 2016Tarique, Briscoe, and Schuler 2016; Tyler 1999). Didactic Instructive, teaching Intending to teach or demonstrate Webinar Meetings, training, or presentations on the Internet An interactive seminar on the Internet (usually a live presentation) WEBC04 04/02/2017 202 4:58:48 Page 202 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge Classroom Conﬁguration Training can be held just about anywhere, and that is both fortunate and unfortunate. Which participants would be most eager for training to end: those being taught in a beautifully decked-out training room with all the latest technol ogy and as much bottled water as desired, or training delivered in a poorly lit corner of a warehouse with insufﬁcient seating and no climate control? Training is already often perceived as disruptive and inconvenient, even under the best of conditions. Just ask any employee or manager who has to stop production or stay after work to log their training hours. However, training as an intervention strategy is valuable, and the right classroom environment can go a long way toward easing the pain and keeping participant attention focused squarely on the learning objectives. The environment where training is held is a measure of employer commitment to the training outcome, and should not be underestimated. Seating arrangements contribute to learning outcomes and training delivery. The most common seating arrangements are reviewed next, and sample conﬁgurations are shown in Figure 4.4. Theater Set up as a movie theater, all participants are facing the front of the room in anticipation of a lecture, video, or presentation. This style is useful when a large group of people are being trained, the curriculum requires very little interaction between participants, and note taking is not required. Classroom Similar to the theater style, the classroom setting has tables in front of chairs so that participants may take notes or review handouts, guides, or other materials requiring a table. Figure 4.4 Training Seating Styles WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 Page 203 Human Resource Development 203 U-shaped Most often seen in conference room, this conﬁguration is best when collaboration is necessary or the facilitator needs to interact with the group. Boardroom style Similar to the U-shaped style, the boardroom style may be closed off in a rectangle or have added audience seating for observers, such as those seen at small shareholder or board of directors meetings. Cabaret/banquet style Have you every attended an HR networking workshop held in the banquet room of a local hotel? It was probably set up cabaret style. This style is useful for small group interactions where participants are working independently of the whole group (or if food is being served). Note that if a presentation will be included, some participants will have their backs to the front of the room with this conﬁguration. Chevron This seating style can accommodate large groups and be used with or without tables. All participants can face the front of the room or be on both sides of the tables if the training requires interaction. Technology in Training The ability to reuse learning content—especially custom content—and deliver it to new hires and for retraining has been improved tremendously by technology. The ability to sort and order, deliver, and track training program content can result in a high return on the investments such systems generally require. Many human resource information systems (HRIS) have training modules speciﬁcally for the purpose of tracking participants. Stand-alone learning management systems (LMSs) are a good choice in the absence of an existing solution in-house. LMSs also provide expanded solutions for tracking employee development activities, and self-service learning for growth. The Internet has delivered very credible options for employee learning. Learning portals are websites that store a database of relevant training topics that employers may purchase access to for a fee. Learning portals may be the most cost-effective solutions for companies with fairly standard training content needs, or those without the budget for in-house, customized training. Open sourcing has emerged in recent years, especially through academic institutions. Massive open online courses (MOOCs) have popped up on topics such as business, ﬁnance, and ﬁrst aid, to name just a few. How-to videos on YouTube offer training for software programs such as Outlook or Excel and many other topics. With the technology of today, employee skill development can be formal or informal, on virtually any topic, and priced from free to thousands of dollars—all the more reason HR must lead the effort of creating clear training outcomes, and sourcing the most cost-effective training options to deliver success. WEBC04 04/02/2017 204 4:58:49 Page 204 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge Module A unit or segment of an educational program One section of a training program that is presented alone or as part of a series of other units Learning Management System (LMS) Computer software for employee development Computer software that administers, tracks, and reports on employee develop ment opportunities such as classroom and online events, e-learning programs, and training content Learning Portal Website for learning Internet site where employees can use educational resources Open Sourcing Freely sharing Made available for others to use or modify Talent Management This section addresses the need for HR professionals to build and evaluate a robust talent management system. Talent management is about much more than performance reviews. Talent management extends beyond human resource development and will vary in its elements from organization to organization. While some organizations may include talent identiﬁcation and acquisition in the mix, most organizations include on-boarding, talent development, talent review and mobility, performance management, leadership development, succession planning, career pathing, and the retention of high-potential (hi-po) employees. An HR best practice is to have a documented system for capturing the varying needs of employees as they perform throughout the talent management life cycle. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 Page 205 Human Resource Development 205 Performance Review Formal evaluation of an employee’s work activities A documented discussion about an employee’s development and performance that involves managers, HR, and the employee High-Potential (Hi-Po) Employees Employees identiﬁed for advancement owing to their talents and skills Employees who have the capacity to grow into higher levels of leadership in the organization Performance Management Systems In order to truly add value to organizations in the realm of performance management, HR must approach the process as a system of interconnected activities that address strategic people goals. A performance management system is built upon a feedback foundation delivered through formal and informal channels. As with most HR activities, managing performance should be in direct alignment with the company’s strategic goals and objectives, and begins with a basic under standing of the expectations of the tasks, duties, responsibilities, and priorities of the job. For this reason, managing performance begins at the time of hire and extends through the employee life cycle. Performance Management Supervising employees The process of setting goals, measuring progress, and rewarding or correcting performance of employees Performance Management System Process of creating a productive work environment The process of helping people perform to the best of their abilities, which begins by deﬁning a job and ends when an employee leaves the organization WEBC04 04/02/2017 206 4:58:49 Page 206 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge On-Boarding and Orientation In the context of performance management, effective techniques at the beginning stage of managing employee performance include communicating the job and behavior expectations and explaining to associates the performance standards of the organization. New hires are given information related to the expectations of the job (job description) along with information related to company expectations (employee handbook). Employment beneﬁts plans are reviewed, and paperwork is completed to form the basis of the personnel ﬁle. In addition to the compliance training required by many federal and state laws, the orientation/on-boarding process is an opportunity for the employee to become assimilated to the new organization, its environment, and the culture. This highlights the need for HR to build on-boarding activities that identify the goals and objectives of the company through the company mission, vision, and values. Evaluating the efﬁcacy of recruiting and on-boarding efforts is an important step at this stage; it helps HR practitioners reﬂect upon their own performance in the delivery of these services. An emerging metric is that of employee retention rate, in which HR looks at how many employees stayed, as opposed to how many left. Another metric used is the new hire turnover rate, which measures the percentage of new hires within the prior six months who left the organization. In the month of January a company hired 50 workers. Twelve of them separated within the ﬁrst 90 days. Calculate the new hire turnover rate by taking the num ber terminated and dividing it by the number of total hires in the same period. Number of terminations after 90 days 12 100 to convert to a percentage Number of new hires in January 50 Turnover rate for that batch of hires = 24% The topics of employee orientation, on-boarding, and socialization are reviewed more in depth in the Workforce Planning and Employment chapter. After an employee has been integrated into the new environment, more traditional methods of performance management begin to be administered. These are explored next. Performance Standards Expected behaviors and results from employees The behaviors and results that management expects employees to achieve on the job WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 Page 207 Human Resource Development 207 On-Boarding Training and orientation of new employees The process of helping new employees learn the organization’s policies, proce dures, and culture in addition to their job responsibilities Assimilation A process of integration The process of becoming a member of a team, organization, or culture Performance Appraisals and Reviews Companies generally use employee performance appraisals to do two things: (1) provide feedback to employees about how well or how poorly they are doing and (2) create plans for development. Performance feedback of the formal sort is generally scaled over a period of time. For example, in the ﬁrst 30 days of an employee’s tenure, it would be difﬁcult to justify discipline in response to performance deﬁciencies since the employee is just learning the job—areas for improvement are expected. Instead, feedback within the ﬁrst 90 days should be focused on training and developing the necessary skill sets for baseline performance; the feedback is designed to get the worker up to speed with the job requirements. As time goes by, the supervisor will give periodic progress reviews to let the employee know how he or she is doing toward achieving goals, or to address concerns the worker may have. Often, performance reviews will include goal setting, a review of the job competencies, and development planning. Typically, performance reviews are conducted at midyear and end of year if on a business calendar year cycle, or are tied to an employee’s anniversary date. The value of an annual performance review continues to be challenged. The diversity of the workforce along with the ﬂuid nature of jobs requires an evolved approach to providing feedback. Companies are shifting toward giving real-time feedback on performance rather than relying on an annual or biannual summary. Additionally, companies are evolving to seek feedback from all stakeholders rather than only providing one-directional feedback from the supervisor to the employee. Employees are encouraged to be actively engaged in their career development, often leading the discussion about their own strengths and weaknesses. This ownership mentality gives employees a sense of control over their careers, while giving supervisors clarity on how to structure jobs around employee development needs where possible. WEBC04 04/02/2017 208 4:58:49 Page 208 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge After the introductory period, feedback from supervisors is often given on the job, providing direction and redirection so the employee gains on-the-job expe rience. The feature offers the perspective that how supervisors provide this feed back makes a difference. Performance Appraisals Evaluations of employees A method of measuring how effective employees are Progress Review Evaluation of an employee’s performance Formal or informal evaluation of an employee’s progress toward goals and recommendations for improvements and development On-the-Job Experience Skills and knowledge gained through work The skills and knowledge a person learns from day-to-day work experience QUALITY INFORMAL FEEDBACK Have you ever heard of the 80/20 rule? In HR and management, it refers to the premise that 20 percent of employees take up 80 percent of HR’s time. This is relevant in terms of providing feedback, as most managers ﬁnd that they are putting out the ﬁres caused by lowperforming workers more often than investing and supporting the employees who are getting the job done properly. HR can help supervisors develop the communication skills necessary to deliver both positive and negative feedback. Remind supervisors that the quality of the comments matter. Comments such as “You’re doing great” are less effective than “I noticed how you handled that difﬁcult customer this morning—you were very professional, and I think it made a difference.” The ﬁrst approach is vague and doesn’t encourage repeat behavior. The second comment tells the employee that her profession alism is noticed and having an effect. When supervisors must redirect employees, statements such as “You’re doing it wrong” are interpreted as condescending and disrespectful. Instead, a statement such as “Feed the boxes sideways into the machine so there is no chance of your ﬁngers getting caught” provides direction and attaches meaning to the process. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 Page 209 Human Resource Development 209 While day-to-day, informal feedback is ongoing, most employers have a formal method for performance appraisals. Many employers use a combination of meth ods when designing their reviews. Comparison method As the title implies, this method involves comparing employ ees to one another. Common tools used to do this include: Ranked performance is a method in which supervisors rank the employees based on highest to lowest performance. Paired comparison involves comparing one employee’s performance against all others in the group. Forced distribution uses a bell curve to visually represent employees who are high, low, or average performers. This technique may also be built into other methods as part of an overall calibration process to increase accuracy. Narrative method This appraisal method requires managers to write descriptions about individual employee performance as opposed to using a rating scale or checklist. A critical incident review asks supervisors to keep track of notable events over a speciﬁc rating period, and report them during the review. Both positive and negative events should be tracked. An essay method requires managers to write a short description of employee behaviors. The essay method can use prescribed questions in which the supervisor must respond, or be more free-form to improve ﬂexibility. Rating method This review method incorporates tools and checklists to aid managers and ensure consistency between employees. A Likert scale (named after the gentleman scholar Rensis Likert, who developed it) may have any range of responses from “Strongly agree” to “Strongly disagree.” A scale may also be numerical, such as 1 being low performance and 5 being high performance. A challenge to this method of performance appraisal is that the ratings are highly subjective. Objectivity and consist ency are increased when evaluators are provided with deﬁnitions and behaviorally anchored examples of the rating scales. Some managers don’t believe anyone can ever “exceed expectations.” Particularly when a company ties annual raises or bonuses to a performance rating, this can be exceedingly frustrating for employees (the best employees, especially!). BARS A behaviorally anchored rating scale (BARS) requires the use of anchoring statements. While scaled in format, a BARS appraisal provides additional detail about what constitutes outstanding or unsatisfactory performance. BARS must be customized for each job within the organization, built up from standardized job descriptions. The anchoring statements for a salesperson will be different from those for a shipping and receiving clerk. Checklist A checklist is another form of rating method. It involves the rater checking boxes to statements such as “Always completes work on time” or “Has poor followthrough on projects.” While easy to use, it is somewhat limiting in terms of providing WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 210 Page 210 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge meaningful feedback that will change behaviors. For this reason, some employers choose to use graphic rating scales, which have a continuum of low to high in the job duty being measured. The graphic rating scale is a hybrid in that it allows raters to include commentary on performance in the relevant descriptive category along with numeric or other scaled ratings. MBO Management by objectives (MBO) is the process of setting goals directly between the manager and the employee. These goals should cascade down from an organization’s strategic plan for maximum alignment. Also known by other names such as target coaching and performance objective setting, it nonetheless follows the same goal setting process: Review the job description for agreement. Develop measurable standards of performance (there is a difference between “answer the phones” and “answer the phones in a professional manner”). Create realistic objectives. Agree to both formal and informal progress checks. Some companies use the MBO format to pay for performance outcomes—an employee agrees to the objective and is paid a bonus if it is achieved. 360-degree feedback Few jobs impact only a single department; 360-degree feedback methods seek out comments from relevant stakeholders affected by employee performance. Performance insights are solicited from customers, cow orkers, and other departments to provide the employee with meaningful feedback on how performance is perceived. This method is also used to rate managers by asking employees and others for their views on how the boss is performing. Self-assessment Asking employees to rate their own performance is the premise of self-assessments. Some employees report disliking this method as they are unwilling or unable to document their weaknesses for fear of retribution. For this reason, employee self-assessments are more beneﬁcial for use to identify devel opment opportunities. This takes the fear out of an honest self-review of employee strengths and weaknesses. In an organization where employee owner ship of work achievements and career development is at the heart of the company’s performance philosophy, self-reviews form the core of a feedback system. Appraisals Evaluations Assessments of the value or performance of something (for example, job appraisals) WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 Page 211 Human Resource Development 211 Ranked Performance A method of evaluating employees Rating employees from best to worst against each other according to a standard measurement system Forced Distribution A rating system for evaluating employees A performance measurement system that ranks employees against each other on a bell curve and according to predetermined categories such as high, low, or average Graphic Rating Scale Method of evaluating employees A method of giving employees a numerical rating for having certain traits (for example, being reliable or honest) 360-degree feedback Method of appraising job performance Employee appraisal data gathered from internal and external sources (such as peers, subordinates, supervisors, customers, and suppliers); also known as multirater feedback Self-Assessment Evaluating one’s own performance Evaluation of one’s own performance, abilities, and developmental needs Source: DILBERT  2003 Scott Adams. Used By permission of ANDREWS MCMEEL SYNDICATION. All rights reserved. WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 212 Page 212 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge Legal Issues with Performance Appraisal Tools and Methods There are legal issues associated with all of the methods and tools described in this section. As with any other employment action, a performance appraisal must be based on job-related characteristics, not the protected class characteristics deﬁned by various laws, including Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. This is important because by nature some of these performance tools are asking supervisors to discriminate between employees and their performance (such as the comparison methods). As a reminder, not all discrimination is unlawful; in fact, it can be part of a supervisor’s job. Discrimination becomes unlawful when it is based on non-job-related criteria such as a person’s age, race, or disability status. The following criteria should be considered in administering legally defensible performance appraisals: There is evidence that the appraisal is a valid review of behavior. The appraisal tool is applied consistently, without discrimination based on any factor other than job-related criteria or varying standards between employees in similar jobs. The tool is objective. The review is evidenced-based in that it includes documentation of employee performance. The rater has a work relationship with the employee and is in a position to evaluate performance. The more subjective the criteria, the more difﬁcult to prove job-relatedness. Seek to tie performance objectives to tasks, duties, and responsibilities. Rater Errors There are other errors in addition to legal mistakes that can be made by raters in the administration of performance reviews. These errors are common for any HR task in which bias may inﬂuence a rater’s decision. Bias includes a rater’s predisposition toward behaviors such as stereotyping and generalizations. Consider previous chapters that discussed interview bias and decision-making bias; errors in perform ance ratings are very similar: Central tendency, leniency, strictness A form of rating pattern in which the appraiser rates all employees either down the middle (central tendency—all employees are average), as low performers (everyone needs improvement), or as high performers (leniency error—we’re all doing our best). Similar to me/different from me This error occurs when appraisers are inﬂuenced by similarities to or differences from their own performance. A new supervisor just WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 Page 213 Human Resource Development 213 promoted may hesitate to call out a subordinate on certain negative work behav iors, mainly because the supervisor used to do the very same thing before being promoted. Primacy The primacy error occurs when an appraiser forms—and adheres to—a ﬁrst or early impression of performance. This is particularly pervasive when a newly hired employee’s performance starts out roughly, and the supervisor makes a snap judgment of the employee’s skills. Recency The recency error occurs when a rater weighs the most recent levels of performance instead of employee behavior over the entire rating period. This often happens because the rating period is too long, and supervisors can remember only so far back (or the worst incidents—see the horn effect). Employees are often aware of this form of bias, so performance improvements are made just prior to their appraisal times. Halo/Horn Ever had an employee who has the best performance of the work group, but is often late? Supervisors may be reluctant to address the tardiness because of fear of losing a high producer. This is an example of the halo effect, when competence in one area serves as the benchmark for ratings in other performance areas. Conversely, the horn effect occurs when weakness in one area pervades other results. The upcoming Employee and Labor Relations chapter has an opening research review of the study of conﬂict at work. In HRD, conﬂict avoidance is one reason supervisors may hold back on giving truthful feedback. The supervisor may worry about the employee’s reaction, or fear a loss of an otherwise high-performing worker. HR can help minimize these errors through supervisor training and educa tion. It helps if the managers are on board with the general performance feedback system, so a root cause analysis may be the ﬁrst thing HR attempts when addressing high incidents of rater errors. Other tools to help supervisors become great at giving performance reviews are discussed next. Central Tendency Average value of a data set A measure of the middle of a statistical distribution of data Leniency Error Favoritism in performance evaluations Rating employees higher than their actual performances deserve (continued ) WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 214 Page 214 A Guide to the Human Resource Body of Knowledge (continued ) Primacy Errors Incorrect assumptions or judgments Incorrect conclusions where the ﬁrst impression of someone or something continues despite contradictory evidence Recency Errors Inaccurate assessments based on recent behavior Incorrect conclusions due to recent actions that are weighed more heavily than overall performance Halo Effect Transfer of positive feelings The transfer of the positive qualities of a person or thing to related people or things Training for Reviewers Senior HRPs must also engage in training reviewers in the proper way to conduct activities in the realm of performance management. Both supervisors and employees alike report low levels of satisfaction with the performance rating system. Supervisors complain about how time-consuming the process is. Apathetic employees report the feedback as having little impact on their job satisfaction, and there is lack of clarity as to how their performance contributes to the company strategies. Some supervisors feel that “no news is good news,” whereas some employees simply need to know if they are on the right track. With all of these moving parts, it is unfortunate that many companies have yet to ﬁgure out how to make performance feedback the center around which a department gathers. A properly built system gives the employees the feedback they need to achieve business goals. It also gives supervisors a neutral tool in which to offer feedback. Training of those who are performing the appraisals can help alleviate some of the problems. Training of evaluators should involve: Describing the process This ﬁrst step in the training of evaluators should include information related to the company mission, vision, and values and ways in which employee performance can have an impact on business results. A performance appraisal process is most valuable when it serves the overreaching reason for existence with business relevance, and relates the organizational mission with the department mission, goals, and objectives. Communicating expected standards of behavior As with any training, evaluators should understand how to conduct themselves before, during, and after the WEBC04 04/02/2017 4:58:49 Page 215 Human Resource Development 215 meeting. Giving them information about the forces affecting performance apprais als such as customer criteria, industry ratings, and the regulatory environment can all help supervisors behave in a way that meets business outcomes and manages risk. Sharing daily practices Performance feedback should be given on a daily basis, using job-related, nondiscriminatory methods that are focused on job outcomes. Tools include the use of progress reviews, success plans, and short- and long-term goal setting. Special Focus: The Appraisal Meeting Helping supervisors prepare for employee reactions is critical. Accusations of bias, harassment, and preferential treatment are not uncommon from employees who are receiving a below-standard appraisal. Therefore, employers may want to advise supervisors to conduct evaluations with HR or another manager (often second-level) in attendance. Giving appraisers training in conﬂict management and how to deliver negative or critical messages may also be helpful, including reminding them on the expected standards of professional behavior regardless of employee reactions to the feedback. Reviewer training must also help appraisers focus not only on the negative performance, but on what the employee is doing right, and how the manager will support the worker’s development. General guidelines to give to training evaluators include: Use speciﬁc examples of behaviors over the entire rating period as opposed to vague statements that are recency or primacy biased. Focus on development and support activities, as opposed to focusing on authoritarian tactics. Remind managers that a review is not a disciplinary session. Teach managers to ask questions (upward communication) as well as provide feedback (downward communication). Communication should ﬂow both up and down. Target job-based behaviors as opposed to personal failings. Upward Communication Flow of information from subordinates to superiors Information that is conveyed by employees to upper management Downward Communication Flow of information from superiors to subordinates Information that is conveyed by upper management to lower-level empl

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