Introduction To Industrial And Organizational Psychology PDF

INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY DLPOPS02_E INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY MASTHEAD Publisher: IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH IU International University of Applied Sciences Juri-Gagarin-Ring 152 D-99084 Erfurt Mailing address: Albert-Proeller-Straße 15-19 D-86675 Buchdorf [email protected] www.iu.de DLPOPS02_E Version No.: 001-2023-1221 Timo Kortsch © 2023 IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH This course book is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. This course book may not be reproduced and/or electronically edited, duplicated, or dis- tributed in any kind of form without written permission by the IU Internationale Hoch- schule GmbH (hereinafter referred to as IU). The authors/publishers have identified the authors and sources of all graphics to the best of their abilities. However, if any erroneous information has been provided, please notify us accordingly. 2 PROF. DR. TIMO KORTSCH Mr. Kortsch is a professor of business psychology at IU International University. Mr. Kortsch earned his doctorate in the field of industrial and organizational psychology. He has worked in various research institutions and provided psychological consulting services to companies on topics related to human resources and organizational development. To make psychology findings accessible, Mr. Kortsch developed empirically based solutions on the topic of stress management. These include an evaluated and certified stress manage- ment program. His research focuses on corporate learning, stress prevention, happiness at work, and envi- ronmental psychology. 3 INHALTSVERZEICHNIS INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Wissenschaftliche Kursleitung...................................................... 3 Einleitung Signposts Throughout the Course Book............................................. 8 Suggested Readings............................................................... 9 Required Reading................................................................ 10 Learning Objectives.............................................................. 12 Lektion 1 Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology 13 1.1 The Field of Industrial and Organizational Psychology........................... 14 1.2 Milestones in the Development of Industrial and Organizational Psychology....... 16 1.3 Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology................... 20 1.4 Tasks and Competencies of Industrial and Organizational Psychologists........... 24 Lektion 2 Job Analysis 29 2.1 Definition and Purpose of the Job Analysis..................................... 30 2.2 Methodical Approaches of the Job Analysis..................................... 31 2.3 Procedure for Job Analyses................................................... 32 2.4 Methods of Job Analysis...................................................... 34 Lektion 3 Job Satisfaction and Work Motivation 39 3.1 Job Satisfaction............................................................. 40 3.2 Work Motivation............................................................. 42 Lektion 4 Work Design 47 4.1 History of Work Design....................................................... 48 4.2 Major Work Design Perspectives............................................... 48 4.3 Models of Work Design....................................................... 50 4.4 Job Crafting................................................................. 54 4 Lektion 5 Mental Health and Work Stress 57 5.1 Mental Health and Stress..................................................... 58 5.2 Stress Reactions............................................................. 60 5.3 Theories of Stress............................................................ 61 5.4 Stress Intervention........................................................... 67 Lektion 6 Training and Development 69 6.1 Development is More Than Just Training....................................... 70 6.2 Instructional Principles....................................................... 71 6.3 Training and Development Process............................................ 73 Lektion 7 Teams 77 7.1 Definition: Groups Versus Teams.............................................. 78 7.2 Team-Building............................................................... 81 7.3 Diversity in Teams........................................................... 83 7.4 Leadership in Teams......................................................... 83 Lektion 8 Leadership 85 8.1 What is Leadership?.......................................................... 86 8.2 Leadership Versus Management............................................... 86 8.3 Traits, Personal Characteristics, and Skills...................................... 87 8.4 Behavioral Styles............................................................ 87 8.5 Contingency Theories........................................................ 88 8.6 Charisma, Transformational, and Transactional leadership...................... 90 8.7 Servant, Authentic, and Ethical Leadership..................................... 91 Lektion 9 Organizational Culture and Organizational Change 93 9.1 Organization Change and Development........................................ 94 9.2 Organizational Culture....................................................... 96 Lektion 10 Learning Organization 99 10.1 What is a Learning Organization?............................................ 100 10.2 Learning Climate and Learning Culture...................................... 100 5 Verzeichnisse List of References............................................................... 106 List of Tables and Figures........................................................ 125 6 INTRODUCTION WELCOME SIGNPOSTS THROUGHOUT THE COURSE BOOK This course book contains the core content for this course. Additional learning materials can be found on the learning platform, but this course book should form the basis for your learning. The content of this course book is divided into units, which are divided further into sec- tions. Each section contains only one new key concept to allow you to quickly and effi- ciently add new learning material to your existing knowledge. At the end of each section of the digital course book, you will find self-check questions. These questions are designed to help you check whether you have understood the con- cepts in each section. For all modules with a final exam, you must complete the knowledge tests on the learning platform. You will pass the knowledge test for each unit when you answer at least 80% of the questions correctly. When you have passed the knowledge tests for all the units, the course is considered fin- ished and you will be able to register for the final assessment. Please ensure that you com- plete the evaluation prior to registering for the assessment. Good luck! 8 SUGGESTED READINGS GENERAL SUGGESTIONS McKenna, E. (2020). Business psychology and organizational behaviour (6th ed.). Rout- ledge. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat0 5114a&AN=ihb.51445&site=eds-live&scope=site Rothmann, S., & Cooper, S. L. (2022). Work and organizational psychology (3rd ed.). Rout- ledge. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat0 5114a&AN=ihb.51449&site=eds-live&scope=site Weiner, I. B., Schmitt, N. W., & Highhouse, S. (Eds.). (2012). Handbook of psychology: Indus- trial and organizational psychology (2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. http://search.ebsco host.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.47405&sit e=eds-live&scope=site 9 REQUIRED READING UNIT 2 Sackett, P. R., Walmsley, P. T., & Laczo, R. M. (2012). Job and work analysis. In I. B. Weiner, N. W. Schmitt, & S. Highhouse (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organiza- tional psychology (2nd ed., pp. 61–81). John Wiley & Sons. http://search.ebscohost.co m.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.47405&site=eds-li ve&scope=site UNIT 3 Dalal, R. S. (2013). Job attitudes: Cognition and affect. In I. B. Weiner, N. W. Schmitt, & S. Highhouse (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 341—366). John Wiley & Sons. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de: 8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.47405&site=eds-live&scope=site UNIT 4 Morgeson, F. P., Garza, A. S., & Campion, M. A. (2012). Work design. In I. B. Weiner, N. W. Schmitt, & S. Highhouse (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organiza- tional psychology (2nd ed., pp. 525—559). John Wiley & Sons. http://search.ebscohost. com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.47405&site=eds -live&scope=site UNIT 5 Sonnentag, S., & Frese, M. (2013). Stress in organizations. In I. B. Weiner, N. W. Schmitt, & S. Highhouse (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 560—592). John Wiley & Sons. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de: 8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.47405&site=eds-live&scope=site UNIT 6 Kraiger, K., & Ford, J. K. (2021). The science of workplace instruction: Learning and devel- opment applied to work. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organiza- tional Behavior, 8, 45—72. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?d irect=true&db=edsbas&AN=edsbas.FF1340F2&site=eds-live&scope=site 10 UNIT 8 Avolio, B. J., Sosik, J. J., & Berson, Y. (2012). Leadership models, methods, and applica- tions: Progress and remaining blind spots. In I. B. Weiner, N. W. Schmitt, & S. High- house (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 367—389). John Wiley & Sons. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de: 8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.47405&site=eds-live&scope=site UNIT 9 Austin, J. R., & Bartunek, J. M. (2012). Organization change and development: In practice and in theory. In I. B. Weiner, N. W. Schmitt, & S. Highhouse (Eds.), Handbook of psy- chology: Industrial and organizational psychology (2nd ed., pp. 390—411). John Wiley & Sons. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true& db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.47405&site=eds-live&scope=site UNIT 10 Unit 10 Watkins, K. E., & Kim, K. (2018). Current status and promising directions for research on the learning organization. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 29(1), 15–29. http:/ /search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=128440 262&site=eds-live&scope=site 11 LEARNING OBJECTIVES The field of industrial and organizational psychology is vast. To help you navigate it, this course book provides you with a comprehensive and up-to-date introduction to this field, along with detailed investigations into some key areas. In addition to theoretical models, this course book addresses recent empirical findings. You will begin your Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology with an overview of the historical roots and methodological approach of the field. The tasks and necessary skills of industrial and organizational psychologists will be outlined for you, and you will learn about the critical topic of work analysis alongside its different approaches. You will also engage with topics such as job satisfaction and work motivation. Moreover, you will come to understand approaches to work design and answer the question of how work can be designed to be stress-free and healthy. Due to changing work tasks, employees must constantly develop themselves. Therefore, this course book addresses the topic of training and development. Since work often takes place in teams, you will be presented with the basics of teamwork. Leadership plays another central role, which is why you will examine the topic in detail. In the last two units, this course book considers the topic of organization with regard to change, organizational development, and organizational culture as well as the perspective of the learning organi- zation. By the end of this course book, you will have obtained a modern introduction to the cen- tral topics of industrial and organizational psychology. 12 LEKTION 1 INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY STUDY GOALS On completion of this unit, you will be able to … – define industrial and organizational psychology. – explain the milestones in its development. – isolate a problem and choose appropriate methods to solve it. – describe the tasks and competencies of industrial and organizational psychologists. 1. INTRODUCTION TO INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Introduction Because the field of industrial and organizational psychology is so broad, it is important to clarify what this field does and does not encompass as well as the basic terms of this applied psychological discipline. Furthermore, it is crucial to identify the essential mile- stones in its historical development, as many concepts and current theories are based on them. The unit covers the methodological approach of industrial and organizational psy- chology in detail, including problem definition, hypothesis formulation, and an overview of some relevant methods. Finally, the unit outlines the tasks and necessary competencies of industrial and organizational psychologists. 1.1 The Field of Industrial and Organizational Psychology The field of „industrial and organizational psychology“ may be known under different names depending on the country. In the United Kingdom, it is called „occupational psy- chology,“ describing „the branch of applied psychology concerned with human behavior in work and organizational settings“ (Zibarras & Lewis, 2013, p. 3). In Europe, it is com- monly known as „work psychology.“ In the United States, it is referred to as „industrial and organizational psychology“ instead. Since these terms are synonymous, their respective definitions also apply to each other. Borman et al. (2003) define the discipline of industrial and organizational psychology as „the study of human behavior in organizations; the behaviors of interest contribute to either the effectiveness of organizational functioning, the satisfaction and well-being of those who populate the organizations, or both“ (p. 1). Similarly, Rothmann and Cooper (2022) describe work and organizational psychology as an „applied division of psychology concerned with studying human [behavior] related to work, organizations, efficiency, and effectiveness“ (p. 1). In this respect, work and organizational psychology focuses on two main objects of research as well as their interactions: (1) the individual and (2) the organi- zation. This is also reflected in its two subfields (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, p. 1): 1. Work psychology, which is often referred to as „human resource management“ 2. Organizational psychology, which is often used synonymously with „organizational behavior“ 14 Human Resource Management Human resource management is a wide subfield that centers on the people in organiza- Human resource tions. The goals of human resource management are follows (Armstrong & Taylor, 2020, management This discipline „is about p. 7): how people are employed, managed, and supporting the organization in achieving its objectives developed in organiza- tions“ (Armstrong & Tay- contributing to a high-performance culture lor, 2020, p. 3). ensuring the availability of talented and skilled employees maintaining positive employee-management relationships providing satisfactory employee experience promoting the well-being of the employees achieving social legitimacy by applying an ethical approach to people management In order to achieve these goals, work psychology is concerned with a variety of tasks. The main ones are as follows (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, pp. 3–4): human resource planning workflow analysis, job analysis, job description, and job specifications recruitment and selection induction, training, and development career development job evaluation and compensation performance management Organizational Behavior According to Wagner and Hollenbeck (2010), organizational behavior „is a field of study that endeavors to understand, explain, predict, and change human behavior as it occurs in the organizational context“ (p. 5). The topic is dealt with on three levels (Wagner & Hollen- beck, 2010, p. 5): (1) the micro level, which focuses on individuals; (2) the meso level, which focuses on groups and teams; and (3) the macro level, which focuses on the entire organization. In essence, organizational psychology focuses on the behavior of individuals and teams in the organizational context as well as the „behavior“ of the organization as an entity. The following are some topics that organizational psychology typically deals with (Roth- mann & Cooper, 2022, pp. 2–3): individual differences and inclusion motivation communication leadership group dynamics health and well-being organizational design, development, and culture 15 1.2 Milestones in the Development of Industrial and Organizational Psychology Understanding the historical development of industrial and organizational psychology is critical to understanding the field itself. Many historical developments, often done out of necessity (Bulger et al., 2020, p.8), helped make the field what it is today. The development of industrial and organizational psychology did not progress in a „straight line.“ Regard- less, significant signs of progress were always present in its subfields (e.g., motivation). Different books offer unique takes on the history of the field (Bulger et al., 2020; McKenna, 2020; Rothmann & Cooper, 2022). Nevertheless, some milestones are common between them. McKenna (2020, p. 7) presents several important historical steps in the development of industrial and organizational psychology: scientific management classic bureaucracy principles of organization industrial psychology the human relations movement neo-human relations systems approach contingency approach Scientific Management „Scientific management“ is the name given to the industrial and organizational psychol- ogy approach initiated by Frederick Winslow Taylor. Scientific management is about maxi- mizing efficiency and getting the most possible production out of employees (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). Taylor, an industrial engineer, was concerned with inefficiencies in manual activities (McKenna, 2020, p. 7). He believed that more streamlined, objective, and effec- tive work performance could be achieved through the scientific study of the specific movements of all work. In his book The Principles of Scientific Management, Taylor (1911) describes science man- agement very vividly. He wrote this book in part as a reaction to the severe criticism of his approach. He was accused, especially by trade unions, of using his methods to maximize the exploitation of workers. In contrast, Taylor (1911) stated: In these experiments we were not trying to find the maximum work that a man could do on a short spurt or for a few days, but that our endeavor was to learn what really constituted a full day's work for a first-class man; the best day's work that a man could properly do, year in and year out, and still thrive under. (p. 54) „Taylorism“ was further developed by the engineer Frank Gilbreth, who developed the method of motion study together with his wife Lilian Gilbreth and made it the core of engi- neering-oriented work analysis (McKenna, 2020, p. 7). 16 Classic Bureaucracy Generally speaking, „classic bureaucracy“ is about the effective organization of a large number of employees in a larger organizational structure (e.g., a company; Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, p. 5). The work of the German sociologist Max Weber contributed heavily to the development of classic bureaucracy. Weber considered the development of bureauc- racy in connection with the societal process of „increasing rationality.“ Bureaucracy can be seen as a result of this rationalization (Weber, 1921/1980). The main features of a bureau- cratic organization are as follows (Wagner & Hollenbeck, 2010, p. 28): selection and promotion (based on expertise rather than friendship) hierarchy of authority rules and regulations division of labor written documentation separate ownership Thus, in a bureaucracy, work results are completely calculable, and each individual is replaceable. Following Weber (1921/1980), bureaucracy is, therefore, superior to all other forms of administration and is characterized by precision, speed, unambiguity, file knowl- edge, continuity, discretion, uniformity, tight subordination, savings in friction, material, and personal costs (p. 561). The concept of efficiency is still important today (McKenna, 2020, p. 9). High efficiency is understood as either the achievement of goals with as little effort as possible or the achievement of a high profit through given means. Principles of Organization At the beginning of the 20th century, the industrial aspects of many national economies developed very quickly. Likewise, new „principles of organization“ were created. Henri Fayol was a French industrialist and management thinker who developed, among other things, his much-respected 14 management principles during this period (Parker & Ritson, 2005, p. 175). He considered these 14 principles to be flexible and adaptable in applica- tion, and he believed this would help managers supervise an organization effectively (McKenna, 2020, p. 9). Fayol’s 14 principles of management are as follows (Parker & Ritson, 2005, p. 176): 1. Division of work 2. Authority 3. Discipline 4. Unity of command 5. Unity of direction 6. Subordination of individual interest to the general interest 7. Remuneration 8. Centralization 9. Scalar chain 10. Order 11. Equity 12. Stability of tenure of personnel 17 13. Initiative 14. Esprit de corps Industrial Psychology The realization that workers are individuals rather than machines gave rise to „industrial psychology,“ which is concerned with the study of individual differences and the influence of working conditions and methods on the efficiency of employees (Ghiselli & Brown, 1948). By the early 1920s, industrial psychology was established on a larger scale than ever before, especially in the United Kingdom. Several institutions commissioned or con- ducted studies themselves in factories that led to them to recommend reducing working hours or investigating boredom and monotony (McKenna, 2020, p. 10). The Human Relations Movement The „human relations movement“ is associated with the „Hawthorne studies,“ which were significant in its development. The Hawthorne studies were conducted by Elton Mayo, Fritz Jules Roethlisberger, and William John Dickson at Western Electric’s Hawthorne plant in Chicago, Illinois, United States, from 1924 to 1932 (Hassard, 2012). The purpose of the studies was to determine the behavior of people in the workplace and examine the impact of varying working conditions (e.g., lighting conditions) on employee productivity (Olson et al., 2004; Wickström & Bendix, 2000). The experiments showed that a continuous decrease in lighting intensity in the experimental group was not accompanied by a decrease in productivity compared to the control group. Rather, in both cases, work effi- ciency increased (Wickström & Bendix, 2000). Thus, it was determined that the lighting conditions did not affect the subjects’ productivity. Following the lighting experiments, it was suggested that other factors could explain this increase in productivity, so further studies were carried out at the Hawthorne plant from 1927 onward. These studies examined the consequences of changes in, for example, rest breaks and working hours on productivity (Wickström & Bendix, 2000). These follow-up studies included the following: the relay assembly test room study (i.e., the first relay assembly group study) the second relay assembly group study the mica splitting test room study the bank-wiring observation room study These studies also did not show the expected relationship between the test variables and continuous productivity gains (Wickström & Bendix, 2000). In particular, these experi- ments highlight the social nature of humans and, hence, established the beginning of the human relations movement (McKenna, 2020, p. 13). 18 THE HAWTHORNE EFFECT In addition to founding the human relations movement, the Hawthorne studies are still remembered in psychological history for creating the „Hawthorne effect. “ The term was first used in 1953 by Robert P. French. French (1953) wrote about the Hawthorne experiments: in particular, those in which women wired relays in a special room under various conditions: From a methodological point of view, the most interesting finding was what we might call the „Hawthorne effect.“ … Careful studies of this wiring group showed marked increases in production which were related only to the spe- cial social position and social treatment they received. Thus, it was the „arti- ficial“ social aspects of the experimental conditions set up for measurement which produced the increases in group productivity. (p. 101) The Hawthorne effect describes an „undesirable effect“ of the experimental con- ditions themselves (Parsons, 1974). For example, the mere awareness of being part of a study and observed can lead to behavioral changes in subjects. Text- books describe the Hawthorne effect in terms of the effort of study participants to meet the researchers’ perceived expectations in order to receive positive feedback and attention (Wickström & Bendix, 2000). Neo-Human Relations The „neo-human relations“ approach emerged in the 1950s, and it takes a more scientific approach to the functionality of organizations. Many well-known names contributed dur- ing this phase, such as Argyris to the connection between personality and leadership, Lewin to group dynamics, and Herzberg to work motivation (McKenna, 2020, p. 16). They all brought a positive view of human beings and assumed that employees had great potential (i.e., employees were not regarded as machines). Systems Approach The research done at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in the late 1940s and early 1950s is inextricably linked to the „systems approach.“ One central study was con- ducted by Trist and Bamforth (1951) in a coal mine. The findings of this study promoted the idea of organizations as open socio-technical systems (McKenna, 2020, p. 17). Follow- ing this idea, each system (e.g., an organization) has four characteristics (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, p. 6): 1. It comprises several interdependent and interrelated subsystems. 2. It is open and dynamic. 3. It strives for equilibrium. 4. It has multiple purposes, objectives, and functions, some of which are in conflict. 19 Contingency Approach The „contingency approach“ emphasizes the fit between an organization’s processes and situational characteristics (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, p. 6). In essence, the contingency approach does not assume that there are simple solutions to problems in organizations. Rather, these problems usually depend on many factors (e.g., the situation). An example of a contingency approach is the one by Fiedler(1967), in which the effectiveness of leader- ship depends on the situation, such as the nature of the relationship between the leader and the people being led. 1.3 Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology The work of industrial and organizational psychologists should have a good theoretical and empirical basis, which requires developing and testing theories. For this purpose, The scientific method industrial and organizational psychologists use the scientific method to gather informa- This method involves tion on various topics that affect life in organizations. The scientific method involves defining and controlling the variables used, ana- defining and controlling the variables used, analyzing data, testing hypotheses, and verify- lyzing data, testing ing results (i.e., replicating findings). The research methods used always depend on the hypotheses, and verifying nature of the problem. For example, conducting a scientific investigation in a laboratory is results. more appropriate to answer some questions because the conditions must be controlled very precisely. To answer other questions, an investigation in the field is more appropriate to obtain results that are as relevant as possible to actual practice. In some situations, sur- veys that use questionnaires are helpful because many people must be contacted. In other situations, interviews are considered to be a better option, as they can return in-depth findings. In addition, ethical aspects always play an important role in psychological research. Defining the Problem and Formulating Hypotheses The basis of every research process is the exact „formulation of the problem“ or the „research question.“ In industrial and organizational psychology, these questions can come from different areas. Because this is an applied discipline, the questions can be stimulated by practice as well as research results. Many problem statements arise from changes in the environment of organizations. For example, a problem statement might emerge from asking, „How must work be designed in order to make it motivating despite the increased stress caused by higher work intensity and density?“ Also, issues can arise from organizational practice. For instance, it might be useful to ask, „What competencies do employees need for a particular job?“ In addition, questions may come from the find- ings of previous research, such as, „To what extent can different predictions of two theo- ries on the same subject be compatible?“ The next step in the research process is to „formulate hypotheses“ about the research question. These hypotheses are usually derived from relevant theories and research rela- ted to them. Therefore, a comprehensive literature review is also an important component 20 of hypothesis generation. The following list provides an overview of relevant journals with a focus on work and organizational psychology. With respect to research questions on the design of work in the face of increasing stress, both theories of work design and theories Work design of stress can be used to make specific assumptions. The formulation of the hypotheses This term refers to the content and organization should be so precise that they are also falsifiable. of work tasks, activities, relationships, and responsibilities. LIST OF JOURNALS WITH A FOCUS ON WORK AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER (BLICKLE, 2019, P. 31) Academy of Management Annals; Academy of Management Discoveries; Acad- emy of Management Journal; Academy of Management Learning & Education; Academy of Management Review; Academy of Management Perspectives; Administrative Science Quarterly; Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior; Applied Ergonomics; Applied Psychology: An Inter- national Review; Career Development International; Career Development Quar- terly; European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology; Ergonomics; Group & Organization Management; Human Factors; Human Performance; Human Relations; Human Resource Development Quarterly; Human Resource Management Review; Industrial and Organizational Psychology: Perspectives on Science and Practice; International Journal of Selection and Assessment; Jour- nal of Applied Psychology; Journal of Applied Social Psychology; Journal of Business and Psychology; Journal of Career Assessment; Journal of Career Development; Journal of Counseling Psychology; Journal of Managerial Psy- chology; Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology; Journal of Organizational Behavior; Journal of Personnel Psychology; Journal of Voca- tional Behavior; Leadership Quarterly; Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes; Organizational Psychology Review; Organization Science; Personnel Psychology; The Counseling Psychologist; and Work & Stress. The relevant study variables emerge after hypothesis formulation. A distinction is made here between „independent variables“ and „dependent variables.“ The independent vari- ables are those that one attempts to control in order to examine the extent to which they change the manifestation of the dependent variable(s). For instance, a dependent variable could be the perception of stress, whereas a independent variable could be the extent of Stress autonomy. Sometimes, „control variables“ are also collected. These are not the focus of This term refers to the non-specific reaction of the study. However, as demonstrated in the literature, certain control variables (e.g., gen- the organism to any kind der) can influence the dependent variable. In an applied discipline such as industrial and of demand (Selye, 1956). organizational psychology, the recording of control variables plays a more important role in some research designs (e.g., field studies) than it would in basic psychological disci- plines. 21 Techniques and Settings Several approaches can be used to investigate research questions and hypotheses. The choice of the appropriate research method depends on several criteria, and methods are often combined. In general, the following methods are often applied in industrial and organizational psychology (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, p. 22): laboratory experiments field experiments field studies questionnaires interviews observation analyzing documents case studies action research Laboratory experiments A „laboratory experiment“ is conducted under controlled conditions in a laboratory. The independent variable(s) can be fully controlled and influenced by the experimenter in this situation to study their effect on the dependent variable. The laboratory environment largely reduces the confounding effects of other variables. One disadvantage is that this situation is very artificial and bears little resemblance to reality. Field experiments can be used to attempt to account for this weakness. Field experiments A „field experiment“ is similar to a laboratory experiment. However, in this case, the labo- ratory method is applied to a real situation. Field experiments use experimental and con- trol groups. The conditions (i.e., independent variables) in the experimental group are manipulated, while no such intervention occurs in the control group. The results of these two groups are compared in the hope of providing insights into the effect of the conditions on the dependent variable. The experiments in the Hawthorne studies are examples of field experiments. Notably, as the Hawthorne studies made clear, many factors can play a role in field experiments that the researcher cannot control for or might not even think about. Field studies A „field study“ is conducted in the field, which refers to a real environment (e.g., in a com- pany). A field study can combine various survey methods to obtain a comprehensive pic- ture of an object of investigation. Field studies often use questionnaires, interviews, obser- vations, and document analysis. Descriptive and explanatory approaches to field studies can be distinguished from each other based on whether a researcher just wants to get an overview of different characteristics (e.g., age structure) or has assumptions about (causal) relationships (e.g., how pay affects motivation). These two approaches can also be combined. 22 Questionnaires To address some research concerns, it might be interesting to ask many people the same questions in the same order. „Questionnaires“ are a suitable tool for this task. Ideally, questionnaires are sent to the interested group. This is increasingly done online so that the data are immediately available digitally and can be evaluated. However, the response rates (i.e., the proportion of questionnaires returned) are often low, which threatens the representativeness of the sample and, thus, the validity of the study itself. Incentives can be used to increase the response rate. In principle, the questionnaire method is a cost- and time-efficient way to survey many people at the same time. In any case, the question- naire should consist of instruments that are as valid and reliable as possible so the signifi- cance is as high as possible. Interviews Another classic method is the „interview.“ Interviews can differ in the degree of structure that they provide. The three types of interviews considered here are structured, semi- structured, and unstructured interviews. Structured interview surveys are the most similar to questionnaire surveys because the respondent is always asked a specific sequence of questions. Semi-structured interviews work with key questions but give the interviewee more freedom to guide the conversation, deviate from the order of questions, and allow for follow-up questions to be asked to deepen certain topics. Unstructured interviews give the interviewee maximum freedom to address general and individually relevant topics. Interviews collect qualitative data that are more or less structured depending on the type of interview. The answers to an interview can be used to compare data collected by other means (e.g., a questionnaire). Interviews are often used as an exploratory tool in an early research phase or to deepen surprising results. This was the case with the surprising results of the Hawthorne studies. Observation The behavior exhibited by subjects allows for researchers to draw conclusions about their thoughts and feelings. Therefore, the method of „observation“ (e.g., in the natural work situation) can be used to validate self-report measures (e.g., from questionnaires or inter- views). Also, behavioral observations often provide better information about the interrela- tionships of conditions and behavior than is possible in a self-report measure because the behavior is shown in a natural context. Observations can be overt (i.e., those observed know about the observation) or covert (e.g., via surveillance cameras). In the latter case, the behavior is not influenced by the observation itself. However, ethical aspects of the method then play a greater role (e.g., the question of when and how the observed persons are informed about the observation). Analyzing documents Documents are a completely different source of data than interviews. Organizations may have numerous documents that have been created for varying reasons. Examples of docu- ments include meeting minutes, production statistics, organizational charts, and pub- lished papers. Documents can reflect significant events in the life of the organization and 23 provide important contextual information for data obtained from other sources (e.g., interviews). In addition to documents coming directly from the organization, industry reports or research reports from outside agencies may be relevant sources of information. In any case, researchers should be careful when interpreting data from documents. Like- wise, „document analysis“ should be combined with other methods whenever possible to gain a holistic perspective. Case studies „Case studies“ aim to examine the activities or behavior of individuals or groups within an organization in detail. Case studies may, for example, aim to capture a sequence of events in the correct order or to better understand the causes of a particular outcome. A case study can then provide the basis for further investigation. Action research The idea of „action research“ goes back to Kurt Lewin (1947a, 1948) and aims to solve everyday problems. Action research refers to the application of the scientific method of fact gathering and experimentation to a practical problem. The purpose is to achieve applicable solutions to these problems. The process is participative. Employees are invi- ted to act as co-researchers to systematically investigate how a target state can be ach- ieved. The results will then be communicated to those involved in the change process to get feedback and possibly improve the solution. Therefore, when carrying out action research, a plan should never be completely fixed at the start. Instead, it should provide opportunities to respond flexibly as the feedback process provides new insights. 1.4 Tasks and Competencies of Industrial and Organizational Psychologists Industrial and organizational psychologists have comprehensive expertise in their field and can use their knowledge of psychological theories and findings to explain workplace phenomena and develop scientifically based design and intervention approaches. They use research methods and validated instruments to make informed decisions. A distinc- tive feature of industrial and organizational psychologists is that they consider different levels in their thinking (e.g., the individual, team, and organization levels) to explain indi- vidual thinking and actions (Ryan, 2003). Tasks In general, four broad areas of work for industrial and organizational psychologists can be identified (Rothmann & Cooper, 2022, p. 11): 1. Explaining individual, group, and organizational behavior 2. Measuring behavior and predicting potential 24 3. Contributing to individual, group, and organization development 4. Translating research findings and empowering potential users thereof These four areas are briefly described below. Explaining individual, group, and organizational behavior Industrial and organizational psychologists must be able to explain the functioning of indi- viduals, teams, and organizations to various stakeholders based on psychological theories and models. Various stakeholders (e.g., managers, human resource development, health management) may bring concerns (e.g., explaining a high turnover rate or identifying training needs) to industrial and organizational psychologists, which they then address using appropriate methods. Measuring behavior and predicting potential Industrial and organizational psychologists observe and record employee behavior under controlled and systematic conditions. To do so, they use validated instruments that reflect the basis of their methodological training. Next, they use the test results in relation to the findings from the relevant literature to make valid decisions. For instance, intelligence and personality tests are used in personnel selection to identify suitable applicants. Contributing to individual, group, and organization development Industrial and organizational psychologists must translate their knowledge into interven- tions and design measures that have a positive impact on all levels (i.e., the individual, team, and organization). When doing so, they may have to deal with resistance and a lack of understanding, and they should consider this in their measures. In the end, everything should be designed such that all interests are taken into account and, if possible, every- one can gain something positive from the measures. Translating research findings and empowering potential users thereof Industrial and organizational psychologists are also advocates for the findings in the field of psychology. Despite the vast body of knowledge on industrial and organizational psy- chology, many decisions in everyday organizational life take place without considering this information at all. This can be due to many reasons, ranging from a lack of knowledge or understanding of the research findings to limitations imposed by the prevailing organi- zational culture. In this context, the challenge for industrial and organizational psycholo- gists is to present their knowledge in a way such that non-psychologists can understand their contributions (Bulger et al., 2020, p. 19). Challenges In implementing these tasks, industrial and organizational psychologists are faced with various challenges. While some of these have already been mentioned, others address completely different aspects. Important challenges are as follows (Bulger et al., 2020, p. 18): 25 fraudulent practitioners: They damage the general trust in consultants through their questionable actions. This may occur if even you can ensure the high quality of your own consulting work through your well-founded training. credentials and certifications: While these can give important indicators regarding the quality of a person’s work, simply looking at someone’s degree alone is often not enough to get sufficient information about them or their work. communicating with management and other decision makers: This is challenging, as complex psychological ideas must be translated into simple and persuasive language. resistance to change: The resistance that industrial and organizational psychologists experience (e.g., when proposing a well-developed concept) can be very frustrating in practice. However, it is important to win everyone over and gain their support for a pro- posed change. Hence, resistance should be accepted as a legitimate reaction and the intervention should be adjusted accordingly. balancing act: Applied psychologists must constantly deal with the balancing act between the often-contradictory requirements of research and practice. While question- naires can never be short enough in practice, proper research designs require time and resources to be able to make valid statements. This must be weighed up again and again. Communication skills also play an important role in this balancing act. Competencies Overall, the field of industrial and organizational psychology is diverse and challenging. To be able to fulfill these tasks optimally and deal with challenges confidently, industrial and organizational psychologists must have varied competencies. According to Rothmann and Cooper (2022, p. 19), there are nine central competencies. These can be divided into three clusters. The first cluster, „knowledge of theory and research,“ includes the competency of understanding psychological theories and research, which is the basis of one’s ability to assimilate new psychological knowledge as well as knowledge of ethical considerations. The second cluster, „research and statistical skills,“ includes the competency of using research methods and statistics, understanding published research, and being able to think critically about studies and question them. The third cluster, „professional skills, “ refers to the ability to apply psychological knowledge to real-life situations, awareness of career options, and competency to effectively communicate both orally and in writing. Based on the work of Rothmann and Cooper (2022, p. 19), the following list explains the competencies of industrial and organizational psychologists in further detail: 1. Knowledge of work and organizational psychology theory and research: understanding theory and research: This means that you should understand what work and organizational psychological theories are and what they are used for. Plus, you should know how, for example, the methods of research in industrial and organizational psychology are applied. ability to assimilate new psychological knowledge: You should know where to find current knowledge (e.g., in books and journals or at conferences) and be able to recognize and use the practical relevance of this new knowledge. 26 knowledge of ethical considerations: You should know which ethical, legal, and diversity-related aspects need to be taken into account. You should also be familiar with ways to implement your knowledge (e.g., involving ethics officers or seeking collegial advice if necessary). 2. Research and statistical skills: ability to use research methods and statistics: You should have an overview of research methods. Likewise, you should know and be able to apply statistical pro- cedures (e.g., using statistical software). understanding published research: You should know how and where knowledge is published, understand the structure of scientific publications, and understand and be able to classify the central messages. critical thinking: You should be able to classify the quality of the sources and also be able to judge whether the conclusions presented there are valid. 3. Professional skills: effective oral and written communication skills: You should be able to express (complicated) issues simply, understandably, and convincingly both written and orally. awareness if career options: You should know your own competencies, know what career opportunities are available, and be able to use them if necessary. ability to apply knowledge to real-life situations: You should have ideas about the practical relevance of your own knowledge and how to apply this knowledge. Table 1: Competencies of Industrial and Organizational Psychologists Cluster Competencies Knowledge of theory Understanding of Ability to assimilate Knowledge of ethical and research theory and research new psychological considerations knowledge Research and statisti- Ability to use research Understanding of pub- Critical thinking cal skills methods and statistics lished research Professional skills Effective oral and writ- Awareness of career Ability to apply knowl- ten communication options edge to real-life situa- skills tions Source: Rothmann & Cooper (2022, p. 19). SUMMARY The broad field of industrial and organizational psychology can be divi- ded into the two subfields of work psychology and organizational psy- chology. One should not understand the development of industrial and organizational psychology as a straight-line progression; rather, there were always important developments that signified progress in its sub- fields (e.g., motivation). In the unit, important milestones within this field were discussed. Research methods in industrial and organizational psychology such as laboratory experiments, field experiments, field 27 study, questionnaires, interviews, observation, analyzing documents, case studies, and action research were explained. Finally, central tasks, challenges, and competencies of industrial and organizational psycholo- gists were addressed. 28 LEKTION 2 JOB ANALYSIS STUDY GOALS On completion of this unit, you will be able to … – explain what a job analysis is and why it is conducted. – state which methodological approaches exist. – understand how to proceed with a job analysis. 2. JOB ANALYSIS Introduction If there is a vacancy in a company, it makes sense to first analyze the open position before advertising it. This allows for the creation of a targeted job description and improves the recruitment process. However, job analyses can also be used to improve work design. This unit discusses what a job analysis looks like in concrete terms and which methods are commonly used to conduct one. 2.1 Definition and Purpose of the Job Analysis Job analysis The specific procedures involved in a job analysis aim to identify the concrete tasks and This broad term is „com- responsibilities of a job; the skills, knowledge, and abilities that employees need to do the monly used to describe a wide variety of systematic job; and the environmental conditions of the job (Rothmann & Cooper, 2015, p. 126). Gen- procedures for examin- erally, job analyses can be classified according to three dimensions (Dierdorff & Wilson, ing, documenting, and 2003, p. 636): (1) the specificity, (2) source, and (3) descriptive scale used. drawing inferences about work activities, worker attributes, and work con- Concerning „specificity,“ the question is if the focus is on generalized work activity (i.e., text“ (Sackett et al., 2013, more generic descriptions, such as „estimating quantity“) or on specific task data (i.e., p. 61). microdata specificity, such as „recommends medication treatment schedule to patient“). The most frequent „data sources“ used are incumbents (i.e., job holders, mostly using self- reports), professional analysts (mostly using interviews or observations), or technical experts (e.g., training specialists or supervisors). The most common „descriptive scales“ used in job analyses are frequency, importance, difficulty, and time spent. Such a systematic approach, as is typical for job analyses, always has a specific purpose and provides the basis for further processes. There are many purposes for which a job analysis is useful. In particular, job analyses are used in the planning and optimization of jobs, the acquisition of personnel, and the development of employees. Table 2: Examples of Reasons to Conduct a Job Analysis Prepare job descriptions and job specifications Organize the workforce on basis of duties and responsibilities Improve recruitment Plan training and development programs Evaluate jobs Find criteria for performance appraisal Support career development into or out of positions Ensure safety at work Source: Timo Kortsch (2023), based on Rothmann & Cooper (2015, p. 127). 30 2.2 Methodical Approaches of the Job Analysis Before starting with a job analysis, an industrial and organizational psychologist needs to answer several questions to determine its focus and, thus, how to proceed. As shown in the following table, there are several important choices related to a job analysis. Table 3: Dimensions to Differentiate Between Job Analyses Dimension Description Activity versus attribute This fundamental distinction is also referred to as work versus worker ori- entation. Activity (i.e., work orientation) focuses on activities and tasks, while attribute (i.e., worker orientation) focuses on the relevant knowl- edge, skills, and abilities (KSA). General versus specific In every job analysis, the level of specification on the general-specific-con- tinuum must be determined, and it depends on the purpose of the job analysis. Qualitative versus quantita- A job analysis can use qualitative data (e.g., from interviews or observa- tive tions) or quantitative date (e.g., from a standardized instrument, such as the Position Analysis Questionnaire [PAQ]). Taxonomy-based versus If a quantitative approach is used, several taxonomies and instruments blank slate can be used as a basis. However, you can also start with a blank slate and conduct a customized job analysis to obtain a more detailed picture of the job. Observer-based versus Data can be obtained through both observation, which is usually conduc- informant-based ted by a trained job analyst, and self-reporting, which is often conducted by the job holders themselves. KSA versus KSAO Adding the O, which refers to other personal characteristics, to the initial- ism KSA broadens the range of attributes that are included in the resulting job analysis. Single job versus job com- Sometimes, you will be asked to analyze a specific job in detail (e.g., if you parison want to form a basis for personnel selection for this job). In other cases, you will compare several jobs for similarities (e.g., if you intend to plan the contents of a personnel development program). Descriptive versus prescrip- Job analysis can be used to describe the status quo of a job. However, tive strategic job analysis can also seek to determine future requirements in the hopes of using them as a basis for, as an example, personnel develop- ment. Source: Timo Kortsch (2023), based on Sackett et al. (2013, p. 62). The answers to these central questions form the basis for the future procedure and meth- ods applied. As a rule, one or more of the five basic methods are applied (Rothmann & Cooper, 2015, p. 128): 31 1. Observation: Direct observation is suitable for activities that require manual, stand- ardized, and short work cycles. These activities are readily observable. However, this method is not suitable for certain activities, especially those that are primarily mental and are, thus, poorly observable (e.g., some activities carried out by scientists). 2. Interview: During an interview, the job analyst speaks directly with the job holder to gain information. There are different ways of conducting the interview (e.g., standar- dized or non-standardized). Interviews can also be conducted with several people about the same job to get a more comprehensive picture. However, interviews are one of the more time-consuming methods. 3. Questionnaire: Questionnaires offer the possibility to involve many people in the job analysis process in an economical way. A questionnaire is constructed specifically to analyze the job in question and contains specific questions about the job, its require- ments, working conditions, and work equipment. There are no clear specifications regarding the format and degree of structure for a questionnaire; everything from open to closed questions is possible. 4. Critical incident technique: The critical incident technique (CIT) is a special type of interview. As the name suggests, employees are asked what behavior is critical to the success of the specific job. The aim is to identify concrete behavior, not just opinions. 5. Job incumbent diary: Another method is the diary method. In a diary, the job holders should keep a detailed log of their work tasks, the frequency of these tasks, and the times when these tasks were performed. It is important that the writers remain disci- plined and log their tasks on a daily basis, which is often not the case. Well-kept dia- ries are a rich source of data. They offer an alternative to observations in high-think- ing jobs. Ideally, the methods are combined to obtain a comprehensive database. For example, questionnaires can be used to initially reach a broad mass, and the data obtained through them can later be deepened in interviews with individual employees. 2.3 Procedure for Job Analyses A job analysis is a systematic, step-by-step approach. 32 Figure 1: Steps of a Job Analysis Source: Timo Kortsch (2023), based on Rothmann & Cooper (2015, p. 127). Rothmann and Cooper (2015, p. 127) suggest that a job analysis should follow six steps: 1. You must make a decision regarding who should conduct the job analysis. The choice is between an internal or external person. Both options have advantages and disad- vantages that must be weighed (e.g., easy access to all information vs. an unbiased objective view). 2. You need to obtain an overview of all jobs in the organization. This can be done using documents such as organization charts. 33 3. You must decide how to use the information obtained so it is collected and processed appropriately. On the one hand, if you intend to create the basis for a selection test, your job analysis should focus onthe job’s work activities. On the other hand, if you intend to develop performance as a basis for a performance evaluation system, your job analysis should focus on success-critical behavior. 4. Since all jobs are rarely subjected to such an elaborate procedure for resource rea- sons, you must select which jobs are to be analyzed. It is best to select particularly representative jobs in order to obtain statements that are as general as possible. 5. After the previous steps, you must choose the appropriate method for the job analy- sis. In general, you can choose between the five general methods mentioned in the previous section. Some specific methods will be discussed in more detail in the next section. Job description 6. Lastly, you should use the gathered information to prepare a job description and job This is a written descrip- specification. tion of the essential con- tents of a given job. Job specification A job description consists of the following elements (Rothmann & Cooper, 2015, p. 130): This describes the com- petencies required for a job. 1. A job title 2. A summary 3. The key performance areas 4. The equipment 5. The environment You can use a job description to create a job specification. A job specification should include information on the requirements in the following five areas (Rothmann & Cooper, 2015, p. 132): 1. Educational and training 2. Experience 3. Special skills 4. Physical and mental abilities 5. Emotional characteristics 2.4 Methods of Job Analysis There is a multitude of standardized procedures for job analyses. Examples of particularly well-known and proven procedures are the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS), the Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ), and the critical incident technique (CIT). This section covers the JDS in detail. Job Diagnostic Survey The JDS by Hackman and Oldham (1975, 1980) is a self-report instrument that can be used in a work analysis. The JDS offers the possibility of determining the motivational potential of a job by using employees’ answers to score a job in terms of five core dimensions. The JDS must be completed by the job holder and, thus, is subjective. 34 The JDS is based on the job characteristics model (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham, 1976). This model postulates that there are five core job characteristics leading to critical psychological states, which in turn are linked to desired outcome variables (e.g., internal work motivation and job satisfaction). The five core job characteristics or dimensions are as follows (Hackman & Oldham, 1975): 1. Skill variety refers to „the degree to which a job requires a variety of activities to carry out the work“ (p. 161). 2. Task identity refers to „the degree to which the job requires completion of a ‘whole’ and identifiable piece of work“ (i.e., from the beginning to the end; p. 161). 3. Task significance refers to „the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people“ (p. 161). 4. Autonomy refers to „the degree to which the job provides substantial freedom, inde- pendence, and discretion to the employee“ (p. 162). 5. Feedback refers to „the degree to which carrying out the work activities required by the job results in the employee obtaining direct and clear information about the effec- tiveness of his or her performance“ (p. 162). These five core job characteristics lead to three critical psychological states (Hackman & Oldham, 1975): 1. Experienced meaningfulness of the work refers to „the degree to which the employee experiences the job as one which is generally meaningful, valuable, and worthwhile“ (p. 162). 2. Experienced responsibility for work outcomes refers to „the degree to which the employee feels personally accountable and responsible for the results of the work he or she does“ (p. 162). 3. Knowledge of results refers to „the degree to which the employee knows and under- stands, on a continuous basis, how effectively he or she is performing the job“ (p. 162). 35 Figure 2: Job Characteristics Model Source: Timo Kortsch (2023), based on Hackman & Oldham (1976, p. 256). Each of the five job characteristics is assessed using three items. Additionally, there are two supplementary job characteristics („feedback from agents“ and „dealing with others“) that are part of the JDS. Furthermore, the critical psychological states are assessed with either two or three items and the outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction and intrinsic motivation) with three or four items each. Several moderator variables (e.g., individual growth need strength and satisfaction with the context) are also part of the JDS. In total, these are 83 questions belonging to 16 scales. Each item must be rated on a seven-point response scale (1 = low; 7 = high). The job characteristics model has been studied intensively. For example, the meta-analy- sis by Loher et al. (1985) confirmed the assumption that job characteristics are related to job satisfaction. SUMMARY Job analysis is a broad term that is commonly used to describe a wide variety of systematic procedures for examining, documenting, and draw- ing inferences about work activities, worker attributes, and the work context. Job analysis is used in job planning and optimization, recruit- ment, and employee development. Before starting a job analysis, an industrial and organizational psychologist must answer several ques- tions to determine the focus and, thus, how to proceed. The answers to 36 these key questions form the basis for the methods used in the job anal- ysis. These methods include observation, interviews, questionnaires, the critical incident technique, and the job incumbent diary. This unit presented the systematic and step-by-step approach to job analysis. Moreover, it covered the JDS in detail. The PAQ and the critical incident technique were mentioned as well. 37 LEKTION 3 JOB SATISFACTION AND WORK MOTIVATION STUDY GOALS On completion of this unit, you will be able to … – explain the facet and global approaches to job satisfaction. – name different theories of the development of job satisfaction. – define work motivation and explain the relevant theories. – understand which implications can be derived from the discussed theories. 3. JOB SATISFACTION AND WORK MOTIVATION Introduction This unit discusses how work is valued (i.e., whether it makes people satisfied) and how work can motivate people. For this purpose, the unit defines the relevant constructs and presents various models and findings. In particular, the unit discusses facet-based and global approaches with a focus on job satisfaction. In addition, it covers various theories that explain how job satisfaction develops (e.g., affective events theory). Next, the unit defines „work motivation“ and investigates important theories such as goal setting theory and self-determination theory. implications. The unit closes by looking at motivation the- ories from a practitioner’s perspective. 3.1 Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction Job satisfaction is one of the best-studied variables in industrial and organizational psy- This term refers to „a set chology (Judge et al., 2001). Nevertheless, the research has still not conclusively clarified of cognitive and affective responses to the job sit- some questions about it. uation“ (Dalal, 2013, p. 342). The Facet Approach Versus the Global Approach to Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction can be measured in different ways. A practitioner might focus on the dif- ferent „facets“ (i.e., aspects) of a job and evaluate them individually. Possible facets include the relationship between employees and their colleagues and supervisors, job security, working conditions, and salary. Following the facet approach, a practitioner often calculates case satisfaction as the mean score of the individual evaluations. In contrast, a practitioner who follows the global approach will relate job satisfaction to work in gen- eral. The facet approach is problematic because of the underlying implicit assumptions that it makes (Dalal, 2013). Namely, it assumes that (1) all facets are equally important, (2) the facets are all linearly related, and (3) all relevant facets (and no irrelevant ones) are cov- ered. With this in mind, it is preferable to adhere to the global approach when trying to obtain an overall measurement. However, there are arguments in favor of the facet approach. In particular, attitude research has shown that when predicting behavior from attitudes, it is also important that both behavior and attitudes are at the same level (Lav- elle et al., 2007). Thus, if one wants to predict employee behavior with reference to super- visors, the satisfaction facet that includes supervisors should also be used for the predic- tion rather than general job satisfaction. 40 Antecedents of Job Satisfaction There are several theoretical models that explain which factors are important antecedents of job satisfaction. When considering theories of job satisfaction, the first theory that comes to mind for most people is Herzberg’s two-factor theory (Herzberg et al., 1959), given that it is one of the most well-known theories of job satisfaction. However, this theory has, at best, historical value because its specific predictions have not been suppor- ted in the literature (House & Wigdor, 1967; Hulin & Smith, 1967). Presented below are the- ories with more empirical support. Job characteristics model The job characteristics model assumes that five key job characteristics determine whether jobs lead to satisfaction and motivation. The five characteristics are (1) variety of skills, (2) identity of task, (3) importance of task, (4) autonomy, and (5) feedback from work (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Value-percept model Locke (1976) provides a simple equation for how to derive satisfaction from individual job facets. The equation uses three important factors: desire („want“), actual state („have“), and importance. According to this equation, desire and the perceived actual state of the job facet are related to each other, resulting in an actual-target difference. To indicate sat- isfaction, the deviation of the desire from the actual state should be as small as possible. This difference is multiplied by the meaning or value of the job facet to obtain the satisfac- tion score. Affective events theory Affective events theory was developed to explain „the structure, causes and consequences of affective events at work“ (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996, p. 11). According to the definition, job satisfaction is an affective response to the job situation. However, affective satisfac- tion is another construct. Affective events theory conceptualizes satisfaction not as affect itself but as a response to affective events. The core of the affective events theory involves two parallel processes: (1) an interpersonal process and (2) an intrapersonal process (Dalal, 2013). At the interpersonal level, there is a cognitive evaluation process (i.e., the cognitive component) of the relatively stable features of the work environment (e.g., autonomy). At the intrapersonal level, a second process (i.e., the affective component) that has been clarified by emotion research occurs. Namely, a fluctuation of affect levels has been observed. In this process, time is considered to be an important factor, and the environment is conceptualized as discrete events that fluctuate in time, leading to an affective response to the job. Dispositional basis for job satisfaction There has always been controversy in the literature over whether job satisfaction can have a dispositional basis. This question has not yet been clarified. Nevertheless, at least one meta-analysis has found substantial effects for various traits. The meta-analysis by 41 Judge et al. (2001) showed that the four constructs of self-esteem, generalized self-effi- cacy, internal locus of control, and emotional stability seem to be dispositional correlates of job satisfaction. A second meta-analysis supported these results (Judge , Heller & Mount, 2002). Meta-analytical findings on relationships Various meta-analyses have reported significant relationships between different predic- tors and job satisfaction: job characteristics: The correlation between job characteristics and job satisfaction is moderate, ranging from r =.32 (task identity) to r =.46 (autonomy; Loher et al., 1985). personality: Of the „big five“ factors of personality, the highest true correlations are between job satisfaction and neuroticism (ρ = −.29) and extraversion (ρ =.25), which can also be generalized across studies(Judge, Heller & Mount, 2002). pay: A meta-analysis on the relation of aspects of pay (i.e., pay level and pay satisfac- tion) and job satisfaction revealed that both are only marginally related with each other (Judge et al., 2010). The Consequences of Job Satisfaction and Job Dissatisfaction Because the construct of job satisfaction has been studied so extensively, there are numer- ous meta-analyses that provide a good overview of stable relationships between it and various variables. Below are some relevant correlations to consequences that have been meta-analytically confirmed: performance: The findings on the correlation between job satisfaction and perform- ance differ between meta-analyses. The correlation seems to range from r =.17 (Iaffal- dano & Muchinsky, 1985) to r =.31 (Petty et al., 1984). One meta-analysis (Riketta, 2008) demonstrated that the effect of job satisfaction on performance is causal (i.e., job satis- faction leads to performance). health: The correlations between job satisfaction and different health measures are higher for psychological problems (.42 < r <.48; e.g., burnout, self-esteem, depres- sion, and anxiety) than for physical illness (r =.29; Faragher et al., 2003). subjective well-being: Positive relationships have been found with different subjective well-being indicators, including life satisfaction, happiness, positive affect, and the absence of negative affect (Bowling et al., 2010). 3.2 Work Motivation Like satisfaction, work motivation is a well-researched construct. There is a wealth of the- ories and studies about motivation, given that it is relevant for companies to motivate their employees to perform their work as well as possible. The important elements of work motivation are intensity (i.e., how hard a person tries to do something), direction (where the energy is directed), and persistence (how long the person tries to do some- thing; Rothman & Cooper, 2015). 42 Theories of Motivation Work motivation This term refers to „a set of energetic forces that There are many theories that explain the development of motivation. Historical theories originate both within as such as Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, the two-factor theory of Herzberg, and well as beyond an individ- ual’s being, to initiate theory X and theory Y will not be discussed further here. Likewise, theories such as the job work-related behavior characteristics model (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Hackman & Oldham, 1976), which and to determine its form, explains the emergence of motivation through the perception of the five central work direction, intensity, and duration“ (Pinder, 2008, characteristics (i.e., variety of skills, identity of the task, importance of the task, autonomy, p. 11). and feedback from the work), will not be explored. In the following section, only two selec- ted theories are presented in depth. An overview of other relevant theories is provided by Latham and Pinder (2005). Goal-setting theory Published by Locke and Latham (1990), goal-setting theory is one of the best-studied the- ories of motivation. Central to the theory is the concept that goals that guide actions. A goal is defined as an „object or aim of an action, for example, to attain a specific stand- ard of proficiency, usually within a specified time limit“ (Locke & Latham, 2002, p. 705). The main assumption of the theory is that „specific“ and „high“ goals lead to significantly higher performance than easy goals, no goals, or vague „do your best“ goals. When goals are formulated in this positive way, they have four effects or mechanisms of action (Locke & Latham, 2002): 1. Direction: Goals have an orienting function. 2. Effort: Goals have a stimulating effect. 3. Persistence: Goals lead to persistence. 4. Task strategies: Goals influence actions indirectly by leading to the use of task-rele- vant knowledge. The assumptions of goal-setting theory can also be confirmed empirically. In their meta- analysis, Zetik and Stuhlmacher (2002) showed that specific and challenging goals consis- tently led to higher outcomes in negotiations than with less challenging goals. Self-determination theory Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2001) assumes that (intrinsic) motivation is predicted by the fulfillment of three basic psychological needs. These needs are described in the following list (Deci & Ryan, 2000): 1. Need for competence: People want to have an impact on their environment, thereby achieving desired outcomes. 2. Need for relatedness: People desire to feel a sense of attachment to others. 3. Need for autonomy: People want to organize their own experiences and behavior and align them with their own self-image. Following self-determination theory, if the basic psychological needs are fulfilled, it results in six motivational states: 43 1. Non-regulation (amotivation): There is no intention to act because the action has no value, does not lead to the desired result, or lacks the competence to do so. 2. External regulation (extrinsic motivation, controlled): Action occurs only because of external pressure (e.g., demands, reward, or punishment) where the cause of the action is outside the person. 3. Introjected regulation (extrinsic motivation, more controlled): Action occurs due to internal pressure (e.g., self-esteem, fear, or shame). Even if no external stimuli are necessary, the action is experienced as caused from the outside. 4. Identified regulation (extrinsic motivation, more autonomous): Action takes place on the basis of a conscious personal appreciation. Although there is no complete identification with the action, it is still experienced as self-inflicted. 5. Integrated regulation (extrinsic motivation, autonomous): The action is part of the self and is consistent with one’s values and needs. The cause of the action lies in the person themself. 6. Intrinsic regulation (intrinsic motivation, autonomous): The action is perceived as interesting and fun; there is satisfaction in the action itself. Implications of Motivation Theories From the perspective of a practitioner, it is interesting to see which implications can be derived from motivation theories and research. Therefore, some relevant practical impli- cations and recommendations for action are briefly presented below (Rothmann & Cooper, 2015): personal motives and values: To ensure that personal values and motives match the job, a realistic insight into the job should already be provided during the personnel selection process. goal setting: Employees should be involved in goal development. The goals should be specific, challenging, and feedback should be provided on goal achievement. facilitating subordinates’ performance: Next to goal setting, the achievement of the objectives should be supported by managers (e.g., by providing the necessary resour- ces). appropriate use of rewards and discipline: It is fundamentally important that rewards are always linked to performance (and nothing else). Discipline should be used to decrease undesirable behavior, and rewards to increase desirable behavior. SUMMARY The unit covered the topics of job satisfaction and motivation, which are important to work in the modern world. Critically, the unit provided insights into how work is evaluated and whether it leads to job satisfac- tion or happiness. Moreover, the unit presented facet and global approaches to job satisfaction as well as various theories of their origins (e.g., affective events theory). Lastly, it examined how work can moti- vate employees. For this purpose, the unit presented a clear definition of 44 work motivation and addressed theories such as goal-setting theory and self-determination theory. The unit surveyed theories as well as their implications. 45 LEKTION 4 WORK DESIGN STUDY GOALS On completion of this unit, you will be able to … – define work design. – explain the major work design perspectives and how they contribute to work design knowledge. – describe important models of work design and their basic assumptions. – understand how individuals can use their scope to shape their work according to their needs. 4. WORK DESIGN Introduction The unit seeks to answer the question of what work design means by examining its his- tory. In addition, the unit presents the six major approaches in work design theory and central models of work design, such as the job demands-control-support and job demands-resources models. Furthermore, the unit addresses job crafting and strategies for it as well as job-crafting in non-work-related domains. 4.1 History of Work Design Work design Companies use work design to determine the framework conditions for their employees’ This term refers to „the work performance. Consequently, work design can be a major influence on outcomes content and organization of one’s work tasks, activ- such as work performance. Early studies in industrial and organizational psychology sha- ities, relationships, and ped the idea of work design. For example, consider the decomposition of work into indi- responsibilities“ (Parker, vidual elements in the concept of „scientific management“ by Taylor (1911) and the opti- 2014, p. 662). mizations of work tasks derived from time and motion studies (Gilbreth, 1911). This focus on work design culminated in the reduction of the assembly time of Henry Ford’s Model T in a plant from over 12 hours to about 90 minutes. However, this type of work design came at a high price. Stress was created. Alienation from the work task took place. While based on these early findings, recent theories of job design take more humanistic and holistic approaches. Well-known theories such as the job characteristics model (Hack- man & Oldham, 1976), the demand-control model (Karasek, 1979), and their successors are based on a fundamental assumption: Certain characteristics of jobs (e.g., the amount of control or variety) influence psychological states (e.g., psychological stress or perceived importance of work), which in turn affect employees’ attitudes (e.g., job satisfaction) and behavior (e.g., performance). This assumption has essentially been confirmed by a large number of studies (Knight & Parker, 2021). 4.2 Major Work Design Perspectives Work design is an approach from the early days of industrial and organizational psychol- ogy. Therefore, there is also an overlap with the general history of this psychological disci- pline. According to Morgeson et al. (2013), six major approaches in work design theory can be identified: 1. Scientific management 2. Job enrichment approaches 3. Sociotechnical systems theory 4. Social information processing perspective 48 5. Job demands-control support and job demands-resources models 6. Interdisciplinary model of job design Scientific Management The approach of scientific management has its roots in the work by Taylor (1911) and Gil- breth (1911). The idea behind that approach is „that breaking work into discrete jobs ena- bles specialization and simplification, allowing workers to become highly skilled and effi- cient at performing particular tasks“ (Morgeson et al., 2013, p. 256). Accordingly, the focus is on how to increase the efficiency and productivity of employees. Work is designed by management to best meet the company’s objectives. Job Enrichment Approaches In contrast to the scientific management approach, job enrichment approaches aim to align work with higher-order needs of employees with consideration for humane work design. Particularly prominent among these approaches are the motivator-hygiene theory by Herzberg et al. (1959) and the job characteristics model (Hackman & Oldham, 1976). Herzberg et al. (1959) assume that people strive for self-actualization. There are two types of factors at work that can help fulfill this need. Motivators are the job factors that „reward the needs of the individual to reach [their]... aspirations,“ whereas hygiene factors are described as „factors in the job context [that] meet the needs of the individual for avoiding unpleasant situations“ (Herzberg et al., 1959, p. 114). The job characteristics model attempts to relate concrete workplace characteristics to psychological states that, in turn, lead to outcomes such as improved job performance. Sociotechnical Systems Theory The work done at the Tavistock Institute of Human Relations in Great Britain and the find- ings concerning work in autonomous work groups (Trist & Bamforth, 1951) led to socio- technical systems theory. Accordingly, social and technical systems should always be developed together or aligned for optimal results. Research based on this approach has resulted in several design recommendations (Cummings, 1978): Tasks must be designed such that they are performed autonomously while forming a large whole (i.e., these tasks also have a minimum level of interdependence). Employees must have sufficient autonomy to perform their tasks. Employees must also have control over the immediate task environment in order to be able to produce an outcome through their behavior. Social Information Processing Perspective Social information processing theory (Salancik & Pfeffer, 1978) is based on the assumption that meaning is socially constructed. In effect, individuals adapt their attitudes, behavi

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